Local Natural Gas Distribution Systems

(Photo: Unisource Energy Services)

If you’ve ever wondered where your natural gas comes from and how it gets to your house or business, here’s an example of how a local natural gas distribution system works. Regulations and construction requirements may differ from state to state.

Case Study: Local Natural Gas Distribution in Kingman, Arizona

Unisource Energy Services (UES) in Kingman, Arizona receives natural gas from the Transwestern Pipeline, which originates in Texas.  The steel transmission pipeline is 30 inches in diameter and operates at pressures from 200 to 1500 psi.  The pressure is reduced to 60 psi at UNS regulator stations and then reduced again to 0.25 psi before it enters the service lines that connect to home appliances (Unisource Energy Services, 2019; Energy Transfer, 2020).

In Arizona, there are four compressor stations along the Transwestern Pipeline at Klagetoh, Leupp, Flagstaff, and Seligman.  The compressors were built by USA Compression (Energy Transfer, 2020; USA Compression, 2020).

“Natural gas is compressed for transmission to minimize the size and cost of the pipe required to transport it” (Busby, 2017, p. 49).  Friction inside the pipe reduces the pressure and flow rate.  The gas is re-compressed at compressor stations in order to boost the pressure in the line.  Compressor stations are generally found every 50 to 100 miles along a pipeline.  They are a crucial part of the transport system that keeps the natural gas flowing through the pipe at the right pressure and flow rate.  Air is mixed in with the gas to lower emissions from the compressor stations (Busby, 2017, p. 49, 51).

Reciprocating compressors use high compression ratios but have limited capacities.  They are driven by internal combustion natural gas engines (Busby, 2017, p. 49).

Centrifugal compressors use lower compression ratios but have high capacities.  They rotate at 4,000 to 7,000 rpm and are driven by natural gas turbines.  They are energy efficient and cost less to install and use (Busby, 2017, p. 49-50).

The Transwestern Pipeline has an interconnect point at Kingman, Arizona, at legal description 21 N, 16 W, in Section 19.  There is a measuring station there that measures the amount of gas delivered to the Kingman interconnect (Energy Transfer, 2020).

Transwestern utilizes all types of meters in its measuring stations: orifice meters to measure gas received or delivered at an interconnect; turbine meters or ultrasonic meters to measure displaced gas; and coriolus meters, all according to the AGA Gas Measurement Manual (Energy Transfer, 2020).

“Metering of gas flow is an important function of pipeline gas operations” (Busby, 2017, p. 51) because customers along the line pay for the amount of natural gas they receive.  Meters must be accurate in order to ensure accurate and reliable billing (Busby, 2017, p. 49).

Many natural gas companies handle seasonal demand by storing natural gas in underground facilities or storing it as liquefied natural gas (LNG).  “Peak shaving is one of the most common domestic uses for LNG today” (ADI Analytics, 2015).  When seasonal demand (usually in the winter) requires a bigger load of natural gas, the “LNG is regasified and sent to the distribution pipelines” (Maverick Engineering, 2016).

Natural gas supplies can also be augmented with synthetic natural gas (SNG) during seasonal demand.  SNG is actually propane-air or liquefied petroleum gas air (LP-air) which “is created by combining vaporized LPG with compressed air” (Transtech Energy, 2020).  During seasonal demand, peak shaving facilities inject SNG into the natural gas distribution system to augment the real natural gas in order to meet increased demand (Transtech Energy, 2020).

Another way to increase the natural gas supply during peak demand is line packing.  This requires installing oversized pipes in transmission lines, which is incredibly expensive, and not always worth the cost (INGAA Foundation, 1996).

Unisource Energy Services has no storage facilities so it must plan ahead and estimate how much natural gas it will need to meet the winter peak demand.  Then it must contract with a reliable natural gas supplier, schedule the deliveries, and submit its Gas Supply Plan to the Arizona Corporation Commission.  This arrangement is called an asset management agreement (AMA) (American Gas Association, 2019; Arizona Corporation Commission, 2017).

As local natural gas distribution companies grow, they must install new lines to accommodate new customers.  The state of Arizona requires that all excavations be reported to the state at least 2 days before the actual trenching.  All utility lines must be discovered and clearly marked.  Only manual digging can be used within 24 inches of marked lines (Arizona 811, 2020).  These requirements were put in place for safety reasons, to prevent damage to buildings and injuries to humans.

Joint trench requirements can differ from city to city, county to county, and state to state. But a typical safe guideline is as follows: a trench at least 36 inches deep and 18 inches wide; 24 inches between gas and electric lines and between natural gas and water lines; 12 inches between natural gas and communication lines; 24 inches between natural gas and sewer lines (Arizona Public Service Electric, 1995; Lane Electric Cooperative, 2020).

Unisource Energy Services is required by law to follow state and local construction requirements and trenching laws.  The company uses plastic pipes 0.5 to 8 inches in diameter and coated steel pipes 0.75 to 16 inches in diameter (Unisource Energy Services, 2019).  Like all natural gas companies, company engineers must consider line pressures, the length of the line, and estimated load when deciding which pipes to use.

References

ADI Analytics. (2015). A new role for small-scale and peak shaving lng infrastructure.

       Retrieved from https://www.adi-analytics.com/2015/06/03/a-new-role-for-small-scale-and-

       peak-shaving-lng-infrastructure/

American Gas Association. (2019). LDC supply portfolio management during the 2018-2019

       winter heating season. Retrieved from

Click to access whs-2018-2019-report-final-12-20_2019-.pdf

Arizona 811. (2020). Proper planning. Retrieved from https://www.arizona811.com.

Arizona Corporation Commission. (2017). Winter preparedness. Retrieved from

https://www.azcc.gov/docs/default-source/utilities-files/gas/winter-preparedness-2017/uns-

       gas-2017-winter-prepardness.pdf?sfvrsn=daa79b6f_2_.

Arizona Public Service Electric. (1995). Trenching requirements. Retrieved from

https://www.aps.com/en/About/Construction-and-Power-Line-Siting/Construction-Services.

Busby, R.L. (Ed.). (1999). Natural Gas in Nontechnical Language. Tulsa, OK: PennWell.

Energy Transfer. (2020). Natural gas. Retrieved from

https://www.energytransfer.com/natural-gas.

INGAA Foundation. (1996). The use of liquefied natural gas for peaking service. Retrieved from

https://www.ingaa.org/File.aspx?id=21698.

Lane Electric Cooperative. (2020). Typical trench detail. Retrieved from

Programs & Services

Maverick Engineering. (2016). Oil & gas: LNG: Peak shaving facilities. Retrieved from

https://www.maveng.com/index.php/business-streams/oil-gas/lng/peak-shaving-facilities.

Transtech Energy. (2020). SNG peak shaving system design & implementation. Retrieved from

https://www.transtechenergy.com/peak-shaving-systems.

Unisource Energy Services. (2019). Construction services. Retrieved from

Construction Services

USA Compression. (2020). Gas compression. Retrieved from

Gas Compression

Dawn Pisturino

Thomas Edison State University

November 19, 2020; April 18, 2022

Copyright 2020-2022 Dawn Pisturino. All Rights Reserved.

Geological Expertise in Oil and Gas Exploration

(Graphic from Oil & Gas Portal)

Geologists use a variety of tools to discover underground pockets of crude oil and natural gas. Without their expertise, the oil and gas industry would not exist.

Exploration

The first thing geologists must determine is the location of geological formations that can trap oil and gas underground. They do this by determining what kind of sedimentary rocks form the reservoir and what kind of chemical elements are present in the rocks. If sandstones and carbonates are present, this is a good indication that ancient organic matter once existed in that area which decayed and formed hydrocarbons. The hydrocarbons became trapped underground in the form of crude oil and natural gas (Busby, 1999, p. 15).

Geological methods include drawing maps of the surface and subsurface region and gathering rock samples.

Topographical maps in 2-D and 3-D visualize layers of rock and the horizontal and vertical placement of those layers. Rock formations are given a two-part name, the geographical location, which is usually the name of the nearby town, and the predominant type of rock (Busby, 1999, p. 19).

Subsurface maps include three elements: structural, which shows the elevation of rock layers; isopach, which indicates thickness; and lithofacies, which reveal variations in a single layer of rock (Busby, 1999, p. 20).

When geologists take rock samples, they extract samples from the core and gather “cuttings” (rock chips) for “assessing the formation’s lithology, hydrocarbon content, and ability to hold and produce gas” (Busby, 1999, p. 20). If they can figure out how the rock layers were formed, they can determine if the conditions were right for “the generation, accumulation, and trapping of hydrocarbons” (Busby, 1999, p. 21).

Geochemical methods use chemical and bacterial analyses of soil and water samples from the surface and the area around underground gas and oil deposits to determine the presence of hydrocarbons. “Micro-seeps” of petroleum can be detected in this way (Busby, 1999, p. 21).

Vitrinite reflectance uses a reflectance microscope to measure the percentage of light which is reflected from vitrinite (plant organic matter found in shale). The percentage can indicate the presence of gas and oil (Busby, 1999, p. 21).

Geophysical methods use sound waves (seismic vibration) to “determine the depth, thickness, and structure of subsurface rock layers and whether they are capable of trapping natural gas and crude oil” (Busby, 1999, p. 22). Computers are used to gather and analyze the data. Geologists can now use 2D, 3D, and 4D seismic imaging in their analysis (Natural Gas, 2013).

On land, explosives and vibrations are used to generate sound waves. The energy that bounces off the rock layers is detected as echoes by sensors called geophones (jugs) (Busby, 1999, p. 23).

Bright spots and flat spots can reveal where deposits of gas-oil and gas-water deposits might exist underground. Amplitude variation with offset (AVO) and geology related imaging programs (GRIP) can enhance the resolution and analysis of bright spots (Busby, 1999, p. 24).

“Cross-well” seismic technology uses seismic energy in one well and sensors in nearby wells to retrieve high-resolution images that have been used successfully in determining the presence of crude oil. It is now being used in natural gas exploration (Busby, 1999, p. 24).

Gravity meters are used to detect salt domes and other rock formations capable of trapping gas and oil. Magnetometers detect the thickness of basement rock and find faults. Computer models create hypothetical pictures of subsurface structures from mathematical computations (Busby, 1999, p. 25).

Drilling

Once geologists determine the geological and economic feasibility of drilling a well, a group of geologists, geophysicists, and engineers pinpoint the site for the well and its potential reservoir. They decide how deep the well should be. The average well is about 5,800 feet deep in the United States. The drilling company must then get permission to drill from the owners of the land and determine who owns the mineral rights.  They sign a lease to use the land for a certain length of time.  The drilling company then breaks ground (spudding) and keeps well logs (measurements) to determine the possibility of gas and oil formation and the porosity and permeability of the rock. The contractors who own the drilling rigs sign an agreement to drill to a certain depth and detail what equipment they will need. A pit is dug at the site and lined with plastic that holds unnecessary materials (Busby, 1999, p. 29-30).

Rotary drills, driven by a diesel engine, are the most common type of drill used because they can drill hundreds and even thousands of feet per day. The drill bit must be changed after 40 to 60 hours of drilling. Other drilling techniques include directional drilling, which allows drilling in multiple directions, horizontal drilling, which is used to enhance gas recovery and to inject fracturing fluids, and offshore drilling, which uses special equipment to drill in ocean water (Busby, 1999, p. 31-35).

Some of the drilling problems that come up include drilling a dry hold; a breakage inside the well; things falling into the well; and high pressures underground causing gas or water to flow into the well, changing the balance of the pressure in the well. Drilling must be halted then and the problem corrected (Busby, 1999, p.33).

Geologists use various tests to measure the probability that the well will produce enough oil and gas. Drilling-time measurements measure the rate of the bit’s penetration into the rock; mud logs measure the chemistry of mud and rock cuttings, looking for traces of gas; wireline logs sense electrical, radioactive, and sonic properties of rocks and fluids; electrical logs test rock for resistivity; gamma ray logs measure radioactivity; neutron logs measure rock density; caliper logs test the type of rock; dip logs look for the placement of rock layers; sonic/acoustic velocity logs measure the speed at which sound travels through rock. Traditionally, these tests were conducted on bare, uncased wells. But new technology allows testing to be done with the casing in place (Busby, 1999, p. 36-37).

If the well comes up dry, the well is plugged up and abandoned. If the well holds promise of a productive well, the bare well is “cased, or lined with metal pipe to seal it from the rock” (Busby, 1999, p.29). A foundation of cement is created. Then the casing is drilled with holes so gas can flow into the well. The flow rate of the gas is measured, and if productive, valves and fittings are installed in order to control the flow. Oil and gas products are separated at the wellhead. A gathering system is built after several wells are completed. Flow lines gather gas from several wells and transport it to a centralized processing facility (Busby, 1999, p. 37-38).

Transmission

“The pipeline industry carries natural gas from producers in the field to distribution companies and to some large industrial customers” (Busby, 1999, p. 43) through large pipes with high pressures, from 500 to 1,000 psi or 3,400 to 6,900 psi). Compressor stations along the lines maintain the pressures in the pipes. “As of the 1990s, more than 300,000 miles of gas pipelines criss-cross the United States, serving nearly 60 million gas customers” (Busby, 1999, p. 43).

Pipes are laid in trenches and coated inside with chemicals to prevent corrosion, improve light reflection, reduce water retention, reduce absorption of gas odorants, and to improve gas flow (Busby, 1999, p. 46-47).

Gas demand depends on weather, the season, and its use in power generation. Pipeline operators try to spread the costs over the whole year. Gas meters are used “to reduce costs and increase the accuracy of gas flow measurement” (Busby, 1999, p. 51).

Pipeline inspection and maintenance have to be done on a regular basis to detect gas leaks, address corrosion, repair damage, and to keep the gas flowing smoothly (Busby, 1999, p.  51-53).

Economic Concerns

During exploration, there is no guarantee that all the money spent on research, testing, and drilling will be recouped. If a well is productive, royalties must be paid to the owner of the mineral rights after all production costs are paid. State and federal governments regulate how many wells can exist per 640 acres and how much gas and oil can be produced over a certain time period. Offshore drilling, which has become more common, is very expensive because these oil rigs use special equipment and can drill as deep as 10,400 feet. When wells are losing pressure and running dry, companies must spend money on well stimulation. In fact, companies give priority to this because it costs less than exploring for new wells. It’s been estimated that the oil and gas companies spend roughly $5 billion on treating natural gas before it is ever transmitted through a pipeline. Pipelines and compressor stations must be built, inspected, repaired, and maintained. Environmental regulations cost companies money on research and new technologies (Busby, 1999, p. 15-54).

If oil and gas supplies diminish or are suddenly cut off, access to energy is decreased, and costs sky-rocket. When pipelines break or oil rigs are damaged or destroyed, this causes a disruption in the oil and gas supply. If the disruption lasts long enough, it can raise costs to the consumer. Political conflicts affect oil and gas supplies, energy costs, and the ability of companies to find new sources (Busby, 1999, p.15-54).

Dawn Pisturino

Thomas Edison State University

October 22, 2020; March 18, 2022

Copyright 2020-2022 Dawn Pisturino. All Rights Reserved!

Busby, R.L. (Ed.). (1999). Natural Gas in Nontechnical Language. Tulsa, OK: PennWell.

Natural Gas. (2013). Natural gas and the environment. Retrieved from

       http://www.naturalgas.org

History of Chevron Corporation

(Standard Oil Company of California gas station)

       In September 1876, oil driller Alex Mentry struck oil at Pico No. 4 in Pico Canyon, California.  This set off a new “gold rush” in search of oil, the “black gold.”  At the time, Mentry worked for California Star Oil.  A few years later, on September 10, 1879, Pacific Coast Oil Company, which had incorporated in San Francisco, California on February 19, 1879, acquired California Star Oil – and this is where the history of Chevron begins (Chevron, 2020).

       Pacific Coast built the largest refinery in California at Point Alameda on San Francisco Bay, with the capacity to produce 600 barrels a day.  The company built a pipeline from Pico Canyon to the Southern Pacific Railroad train station at Elayon in southern California. By 1895, they had acquired the first steel tanker in California, the George Loomis, which could hold 6,500 barrels of crude oil (Chevron, 2020).

       In 1878, competition appeared in the form of Standard Oil Company (Iowa).  Known for its marketing skills, quality products, effective advertising campaigns, and rich financial backing, it set up shop in San Francisco, California with the goal of dominating the West Coast’s oil market.  By 1885, Standard Oil had distribution centers throughout the West Coast.  By contrast, Pacific Coast Oil Company was struggling to survive. Finally, in 1900, Standard Oil purchased the struggling company in order to increase its own production, transportation, and refining operations. In 1906, consolidation between Pacific Coast Oil and Standard Oil (Iowa) produced a new company – Standard Oil of California (Chevron, 2020).

       In 1911, Standard Oil of California established the California Natural Gas Company at its El Segundo plant in southern California in order to explore for natural gas in the San Joaquin Valley.  A second pipeline was built, linking the Richmond refinery, which was built in 1902, and the Kern River Field (Chevron, 2020).

       In an effort to conserve energy resources, the Starke gas trap – invented by engineer C.C. Scharpenberg and geologist Eric Starke — was invented and implemented for capturing natural gas from a well (Chevron, 2020).

       Between 1912 and 1919, Standard Oil of California expanded its operations until it saturated the market in a five-state area.  “Petroleum and natural gas are by far the major fuels used on the Pacific Coast” (Miller, 1936, p. 86).  But its market share had dropped by 1926 due to increased competition.  With the re-opening of the Panama Canal in 1914, Standard Oil of California ventured into the international market and expanded its market share in the Eastern United States and Europe (Chevron, 2020).  Natural gas use, however, continued to grow, from 72,000 cubic feet consumed on the West Coast in 1921 to 258,000 cubic feet consumed in 1933 (Miller, 1936, p. 86).

       Standard Oil of California continued to expand its operations through subsidiaries, mergers, and partnerships.  It opened operations in the Middle East, Canada, Mexico, and Central America.  In September 1950, the company completed the Trans-Arabian Pipeline.  Company revenues reached 1 billion dollars in 1951.  A merger with Standard Oil of Kentucky in 1961 expanded its markets in five southeastern states.  In 1977, Chevron USA was formed with the merger of six domestic oil and gas operations.  In 1979, Chevron celebrated 100 years of operations (Chevron, 2020).

       In March 1984, Chevron merged with Gulf Oil Corporation.  This merger increased their reserves of oil, gas, and natural gas liquids.  In the 1990s, Chevron developed the Escruvos

Natural Gas project in Nigeria, converting natural gas to liquids.  In 1996, “Chevron transferred its natural gas gathering, operating, and marketing operation to NGC Corporation (later Dynergy) in exchange for a roughly 25% equity stake in NGC” (Chevron, 2020). Through its merger with Texaco, Chevron acquired 11 million oil-equivalents of natural gas reserves.  Using 3-D imaging signals, Chevron discovered one of the largest crude oil and natural gas fields in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico in May 2009.  In 2005, Chevron changed its name to Chevron Corporation, acquired Unocal, and increased its natural gas reserves by 15 per cent.  The Gorgon Project and Wheatstone Project in Western Australia are boosting Chevron’s liquefied natural gas reserves. Gorgon, which will supply the Asia-Pacific market, had a daily production of 2.3 billion cubic feet of natural gas and 6,000 barrels of condensate in 2019.  Production is projected to last 40 or more years, with 15.6 million metric tons of liquefied natural gas produced per year (Chevron, 2020).

       “Chevron’s development of oil and natural gas from shale and tight rock formations has intensified since the company entered the Marcellus Shale through its acquisition of Atlas Energy in 2011” (Chevron, 2020).  The company’s policy of partnerships, mergers, and acquisitions has paid off handsomely for its bottom line and future success.

       Likewise, experts say that energy demand could increase by 33% by the year 2040, making all sources of energy important: natural gas, crude oil, coal, renewables, and nuclear (Chevron, 2020).  California alone “produced more than 200 million cubic feet of natural gas in 2017 used for heating and cooking in homes and businesses and to generate electricity” (Powering California, 2019).  Chevron has expanded into geothermal, solar, wind, biofuel, fuel cells, and hydrogen energy.  It recently invested in Carbon Clean Solutions, a company which is developing technology that “removes carbon dioxide at a price of $30.00 per ton” (Houston Chronicle, 2020.)  The prototype is expected to come out in 2021.

       The demand for natural gas and liquefied natural gas has intensified as companies and consumers look for cleaner, cheaper sources of energy.  Liquefied natural gas (LNG) can be easily shipped and stored because cooling the gas at temperatures of -260 degrees Fahrenheit shrinks the gas into 600 times smaller its normal volume.  LNG can be re-gasified and transmitted through natural gas pipelines to power plants fueled by natural gas, as well as industrial, residential and commercial consumers.  Markets for both natural gas and LNG have increased in the U.S. since 2007, and Asian countries are demanding more imported product (U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2020).  Chevron Shipping Company has a large fleet of crude oil tankers and LNG carriers to meet this demand (Chevron, 2020).

       Chevron has crude oil and natural gas fields in Colorado, New Mexico, and Texas. In 2018, they produced 651 million cubic feet of natural gas and 77,000 barrels of natural gas liquids (NGL).  In 2018, Chevron’s holdings in the Gulf of Mexico produced 105 million cubic feet of natural gas and 13,000 barrels of NGLs. Its Jack and St. Malo fields produced 139,000 barrels of liquids and 21 million cubic feet of natural gas. Its Big Foot Project produced 25 million cubic feet of natural gas per day. Its Tahiti field in the Gulf produced 22 million cubic feet of natural gas and 3,000 barrels of NGLs.  Its Mad Dog Field yielded 8,000 barrels of liquids and 1 million cubic feet of natural gas.  The Stampede Field produced 4 million cubic feet of natural gas. In California, 25 million cubic feet of natural gas and 400 barrels of NGLs were produced.  In the Appalachian Basin, 240 million cubic feet of natural gas, 4,000 barrels of NGLs, and 1,000 barrels of condensate were produced (Chevron, 2020).

       “The Chevron Pipe Line Company transports crude oil, refined petroleum products, liquefied petroleum (LPG), natural gas, NGLs, and chemicals within the U.S.” (Chevron, 2020).  It manages pipelines for Chevron Phillips Chemical and has financial interests in other U.S. and international pipelines.  Chevron Power and Energy Management Company handles gas-fired and renewable energy power generation.  Cogeneration facilities fueled by natural gas produce electricity and steam and re-use recovered waste heat to optimize oil operations.  Chevron’s Supply and Trading branches in Houston, Texas, London, Singapore, and San Ramon, California provide support for crude oil and natural gas production operations, refining, and marketing. Approximately 5 million barrels of liquids and 5 billion cubic feet of natural gas are traded on the commodities exchange every day.  Chevron’s Gas Supply and Trading group “markets and manages transportation for Chevron’s equity natural gas production.  It also manages all LPG and NGL trading, including supplying refineries and marketing NGLs produced by Chevron’s refineries and Upstream assets” (Chevron, 2020).

       In order to ensure a qualified work force for the future, Chevron invests in education to teach high school students science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM).  Geologists, chemists, IT specialists, healthcare workers, engineers, and other specialists working for Chevron must be experienced professionals in their fields.  They actively encourage girls to become proficient in STEM.  And they support programs to help low-income men and women get the skills they need to get high-paying jobs in the global energy industry (Chevron, 2020).

       More than 100 years later, Chevron is exploring, researching, developing, and utilizing new technologies in order to meet increasing demands for energy.  It continues to be a leader in the global energy industry.

Dawn Pisturino

Thomas Edison State University

December 16, 2020

Copyright 2020-2022 Dawn Pisturino. All Rights Reserved.

References

Chevron. (2020). History: see where we’ve been and where we’re going. Retrieved from

https://www.chevron.com.

Chevron. (2020). Operations: driving human progress. Retrieved from

https://www.chevron.com.

Chevron. (2020). Project portfolio: delivering energy worldwide. Retrieved from

https://www.chevron.com.

Houston Chronicle. (2020). Chevron invests in carbon capture technology company. Retrieved

       from https://www.houstonchronicle.com/business/energy/article/Chevron-invests-in-carbon-

       capture-technology-15063229.php.

Miller, W. (1936). Pacific Coast Oil and Natural Gas. Economic Geography, 12 (1), 86-90.

       doi: 10.2307/140266.

Powering California. (2019). The history of oil and natural gas in california. Retrieved from

https://www.poweringcalifornia.com/the-history-of-oil-and-natural-gas-in-california-2/

U.S. Energy Information Administration. (2020). Natural gas explained. Retrieved from

https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/natural-gas.

Evolution of Natural Gas in America

The natural gas industry is so vital to the functioning and prosperity of the United States that a depletion of natural gas resources would cripple the whole country.  Roughly 25% of the energy used in the United States comes from natural gas.  From manufacturing uses to home energy consumption, natural gas plays an important role in everyday life, even if American consumers are unaware of it (Busby, 1999, p. xviii).

       Natural gas is a natural resource that has developed over millions of years of plant and animal decomposition.  It is often found at the bottom of bodies of water that have existed for eons, such as oceans and lakes.  Plant and animal matter that became buried before decomposition or became lodged in anaerobic water, such as a stagnant pond, avoided oxidation.  As sand, mud, and other materials collected on top of the organic matter over long periods of time, these materials solidified into rock.  The organic matter was preserved by the rock. Years and years of pressure and heat turned the organic matter into gas and oil.  “Coal, shale, and some limestones have a dark color that comes from their rich organic content.  Many sedimentary basins are gas-prone and produce primarily natural gas” (Busby, 1999, p. 2-3).

       The average composition of natural gas, after processing, is 88% methane, 5% ethane, 2% propane, and 1% butane (Busby, 1999, p. 2).  The natural gas widely used today is, therefore, largely methane, “a colorless, odorless gas that burns readily with a pale, slightly luminous flame (Busby, 1999, p. 1).  The by-products of burning natural gas are mostly water vapor and carbon dioxide, making it “the cleanest burning fossil fuel” (Busby, 1999, p. 1).

       Methane is used in making solvents and other chemical compositions.  Propane and butane are separated from natural gas and sold as separate fuels. Liquified petroleum gas (LPG) is mostly propane and used as a fuel in rural areas where pipelines do not exist.  When carbon dioxide and helium are recovered from natural gas, they are often used to boost production in old oil fields.  Helium that is recovered from natural gas is used to fill balloons and blimps.  It is also widely used in the electronics industry.  Hydrogen sulfide, which is very corrosive, must be removed from natural gas before it is transmitted through pipelines or it will damage vital parts of gas wells and pipes (Busby, 1999, p. 1-2).

       Wood that has been subjected to high temperatures over time, turns into coal.  Coal seam gas is primarily methane. At depths with cooler temperatures, bacteria produce microbial gas, which is largely methane. Thermogenic gas develops at lower depths and with temperatures greater than 300 degrees Fahrenheit.  Trapped in underground reservoirs, high temperatures sometimes “gasify” the heavier hydrocarbons.  When the temperature cools, the gas re-liquifies and forms a condensate, which is largely pure gasoline. This is known as “wet” gas.  “Dry” gas is composed of pure methane.  Natural gas liquids (NGL) are composed of butane, propane, ethane, and gasoline condensate.  At depths greater than 18,000 feet, high temperatures turn oil into natural gas and graphite (Busby, 1999, p. 3-4).

       “Most deep wells are drilled in search of natural gas . . . [because] most gas that has been generated over the ages has been lost rather than trapped, which is why many exploratory wells are unproductive” (Busby, 1999, p. 3-4).  The reservoir rock holding the gas must be porous as well as permeable to allow for containment and access.

       Although people in the past were aware of natural gas, it was not until the 1800s that gas began to be developed and used for various purposes.  Coal gas began to be utilized in gas lighting in America and Europe, which allowed factories and businesses to operate for longer hours and families to engage in more social activities in the evenings (Busby, 1999, p. 5-6).

       One of the first inventors to experiment with coal gas was William Murdoch.  His experiments were so successful that his employer, Boulton & Watt, expanded its business to include “installing gas lighting in English factories” (Busby, 1999, p. 6).  The city of Birmingham adopted gas lighting, which inspired great demand for this new technology (Busby, 1999, p. 6).

       One of the first gas lights, the Thermolamp, was invented by Philippe Leon in France in 1799.  He patented a process to generate gas from wood and put it on display in Paris in 1802.  But the French government rejected the idea of a massive lighting system fueled by gas (Busby, 1999, p. 6).

       In 1807, Frederick Winsor “staged the first gas street-lighting display in London” (Busby, 1999, p. 6).  He had found a way to pipe large quantities of gas via a centralized system and founded his own public gas distribution company in 1812 (Busby, 1999, p. 6).

       By 1819, London had installed approximately 300 miles of gas pipes that supplied more than 50,000 gas burners.  The pipes were made of wood, but these were eventually replaced by metal pipes (Busby, 1999, p. 6).                                                                                                                                        

       In America, Charles Peale began testing gas lighting in Philadelphia in 1802.  The city of Baltimore hired his son, Rembrandt Peale, to install a gas lighting system in 1816.  The first gas utility company in America was born in that year, and more sprouted up along the East coast.  The first gas company in the southern states was established in New Orleans (Busby, 1999, p. 6).

       America could boast around a thousand companies selling coal gas for lighting by the end of the 19^th century.  And most major cities around the world had adopted gas lighting (Busby, 1999, p. 6).

       Most consumer gas distribution was not metered but delivered at a flat rate, which was based on the number of hours of use and the number of lights in a household or business.  A gas meter was invented in 1815.  By 1862, gas meters – which monitor the volume of gas used – were being used in London.  Coin-operated meters became available in the 1890s which allowed poorer consumers to utilize gas energy as they could afford it (Busby, 1999, p. 7).

       “Coke is a solid, porous by-product of gas manufacturing that can also be used for domestic heating” (Busby, 1999, p. 8).  The evolution of the iron and steel industries created a demand for blast-furnace coke that led to the development of the push-through-coke oven.  The demand for coke oven gas increased until it “constituted 18.7% of all manufactured gas” (Busby, 1999, p. 8) in 1920.

       As new uses for gas were discovered, developed, and implemented, “the first gas range in the U.S. was built around 1840” (Busby, 1999, p. 8).  The Goodwin Company introduced the Sun Dial Stove in 1879.  Two more gas stove manufacturers opened within four years.  And in 1887, the first gas appliance store opened in Providence, Rhode Island.  By 1900, cooking with gas had outstripped gas lighting and gas heating (Busby, 1999, p. 8).                                                                                                            

       Using gas to heat water storage tanks became popular in the 1860s.  The year 1883 saw the first circulating water heater come onto the market.  A water heater with a thermostat was introduced a few years later. Gas distribution was fast becoming a household necessity (Busby, 1999, p. 9).

       Natural gas was frequently discovered in the 1800s when people drilled for water, but the gas was ignored.  It was not until 1821 that William Hart drilled the first natural gas well and piped it through wooden pipes to neighbors’ homes.  This same gas was used to light up the City of Fredonia, New York a few years later (Busby, 1999, p. 9).

       Gas wells were drilled in Pennsylvania, New York, and West Virginia throughout the 1830s and 1840s.  But gas pipes were still primitive and only able to transport gas to customers near the gas wells (Busby, 1999, p. 10).

       The first natural gas company opened in Fredonia, New York in 1865.  When oil was discovered in Titusville, Pennsylvania, an oil rush ensued that diminished the importance of natural gas.  “Gas produced along with oil was usually just burned off, or flared” (Busby, 1999, p. 10).

       Andrew Carnegie, the famous steel magnate, documented in 1885 that 10,000 tons of coal had been replaced by natural gas.  But as the supply of natural gas became depleted, steel makers were forced to revert to using coal again by 1900.  This pattern repeated itself for the next 25 years.  Wastefulness and leakage were the main culprits (Busby, 1999, p. 10).

       The first long-distance wooden pipeline was built between West Bloomfield and Rochester, New York in the 1870s when a large reservoir of natural gas was discovered in West Bloomfield.  The gas was transported through this 25-mile pipeline (Busby, 1999, p. 10).

       Indiana Gas and Oil Company laid a 120-mile parallel pipeline made of wrought iron in 1891 that used high pressure (525 psi) to transmit natural gas to Chicago from the gas field in Indiana.  The company started using manufactured gas when the natural gas supply ran out in 1907 (Busby, 1999, p. 10-11).

       Oxyacetylene welding was invented in 1911 which sped up development of seamless steel pipe in the 1920s.  Natural gas could now be transmitted at higher pressures and in larger quantities and to longer distances, which boosted profitability for natural gas companies and helped them compete with other fuels.  The natural gas industry continued to expand until the Great Depression, which slowed down economic activity across the country.  As soon as World War II was over and the economic climate improved, the industry began to boom again (Busby, 1999, p. 11-12).

       Natural gas is one of the main fuels used in the food processing industry in the United States.  Large boilers are used to create process steam, which is used in “pasteurization, sterilization, canning, cooking, drying, packaging, equipment clean-up, and other processes” (Busby, 1999, p. 87). Natural gas energy saves companies money when they install “high-efficiency, low-emission natural gas-fired boilers” (Busby, 1999, p. 87). 

       Large amounts of hot water are also needed for “cleaning, blanching, bleaching, soaking, and sterilization” (Busby, 1999, p. 87).  High-efficiency industrial water heaters are used routinely in food processing.  Gas appliances are also used for “drying, cooking, and baking, as well as for refrigeration, freezing, and dehumidification” (Busby, 1999, p. 87).

       Tyson Foods has made a commitment to reduce energy use and produce fewer emissions that puts them at the top of the food processing industry.  As of 2019, they were using 42.15%

non-renewable fuels (including natural gas), 15.72% electricity, and 0.45% renewable energy (wind and solar power).  They are using renewable fuels like biogas from their waste treatment plants in their plant boilers in order to reduce their natural gas use.  They used about 666 million cubic feet of biogas in their boilers in 2019.  Although their energy use went up in 2019, their emissions went down.  The company is reusing process water in their plants to reduce water use.  And it is considering natural gas, electrification, and hydrogen fuel for their transportation fleet (Tyson Sustainability, 2019).

       “Natural gas . . . is the cleanest burning fossil fuel, and emits very few pollutants into the atmosphere” (Natural Gas, 2013).  Although Tyson is already using natural gas in its plants, it might want to consider using natural gas to generate its own electricity in order to free itself from dependency on local electric companies.  This could save them money in the long run, especially as electricity rates go up and electricity delivery reliability goes down.  This, however, would require a large capital investment that Tyson might not want to make (Natural Gas, 2013).

       But Tyson is already using boilers that produce steam, and this steam could be used to generate electricity.  If the boiler keeps running, “the steam can be diverted to a turbine for generating power” (Busby, 1999, p. 87-88).  This is called cogeneration because “waste heat is recovered and used” (Busby, 1999, p. 87).

       Although most power plants have been fueled by coal, there has been a push towards using natural gas because this reduces emissions of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, soot, and smoke (Busby, 1999, p. 88).  “Natural gas can be used to produce electricity either directly, in a gas-powered turbine, or indirectly, in a steam-powered turbine (using steam from a gas-fired boiler)” (Busby, 1999, p. 89).  The natural gas also serves to increase boiler efficiency.

       Natural gas demand is expected to increase in the future as consumers expect energy efficiency regulations to reduce emissions in the atmosphere and industries are pressured to use low-carbon fuels.  Natural gas is a clean, reliable, and efficient energy source that can be used with confidence in the residential, commercial, and industrial settings.

Dawn Pisturino

Thomas Edison State University

October 14, 2020

Copyright 2020-2022 Dawn Pisturino. All Rights Reserved.

References

Busby, R.L. (Ed.). (1999). Natural Gas in Nontechnical Language. Tulsa, OK: PennWell.

Natural Gas. (2013). Natural gas and the environment. Retrieved from

       http://www.naturalgas.org

Tyson Sustainability. (2019). 2019 sustainability report. Retrieved from 

https://www.tysonsustainability.com/environment/energy-emissions.

.

Holiday Wellness

The holidays can represent the most joyous and spiritual time of the year. They can also be the most stressful and unhappy. How can we enjoy the holidays and maintain our balance?

We all have our own expectations of what the holidays should bring. And as that special day draws closer, the excitement builds. So does the stress. Did we buy enough presents? Did we spend enough money? Are the presents we bought good enough? How will we ever get them all wrapped, the cards mailed out, and the decorations put up?

It all seems very overwhelming. But maybe, in truth, we are doing too much. Is it really necessary to spend all our savings on presents? Is it really prudent to run up the credit cards and spend the rest of the year paying them off? The long-term consequences of our holiday actions can be just as stressful as the holiday itself. Sometimes it is better if everyone agrees to celebrate Christmas in a more spiritual way and to forego the abundance of gifts. This can be very liberating for everyone involved, for everyone feels the economic pressure at Christmas.

This year, try to keep things simple. Spend less, do less, and share more of the responsibility with others.
Decorating the Christmas tree, putting up lights, and decorating the house are family events which should provide the opportunity to share special moments with one another. It should be fun — not an annual chore.

Writing out Christmas cards can be done in quiet moments when the kids are asleep. Sometimes, this is the only communication we have with distant friends and relatives.

Show gratitude for blessings received during the year by donating to charity. Ask other people to make a donation to charity instead of buying a gift. In this way, the gift benefits more people.
Simplify expectations. Don’t expect everything to be perfect or to run smoothly. Don’t expect to receive the most expensive gifts or the greatest number of gifts. Don’t expect anything at all. Go with the flow. Find inner peace rather than outer chaos.

Seek to serve others during the holiday season. Concentrate on family bonding and growing closer to God. Enjoy the peace of Christmas and extend it to others by offering tolerance and forgiveness.
Christmas can be a dreaded stressful event or a wonderful opportunity to bring peace into your life. Simplify. Relax. Enjoy the spirit of the holiday. 

MERRY CHRISTMAS!

Dawn Pisturino, RN
November 2006; December 14, 2021

Published in The Bullhead City Bee, December 22, 2006. 

Published on Selfgrowth.com, December 4, 2011.

Copyright 2006-2021 Dawn Pisturino. All Rights Reserved.

A Case Study in Drought: Bullhead City, Arizona

New York Post – Lake Mead at Hoover Dam

Bullhead City, Arizona Primary Hazard: Drought

According to the National Drought Mitigation Center, drought is considered a creeping natural hazard because it has no “clear beginning and end like tornadoes or hurricanes or floods” (National Drought Mitigation Center, 2019, para. 19).  It can develop over many months or years as the climate in a region changes.  This is called “natural climate variability . . . we consider drought to be a normal part of climate just like floods, hurricanes, blizzards, and tornadoes” (National Drought Mitigation Center, 201, para. 7).

Why Bullhead City has the Highest Probability of Drought

Bullhead City, Arizona is a desert community on the Colorado River which sits at an elevation of 566 feet above sea level.  Roughly 40,000 people call it home (City Data, 2017).  Due to an abundance of rain and snow during the 2018-2019 winter season, the U.S. Drought Monitor determined in June, 2019 that Bullhead City had graduated from drought to an abnormally dry area (Associated Press, 2019).  As of this writing, however, the monsoon season—which normally dumps a lot of rain in the area—has been sparse, and Bullhead City is in danger of falling back into drought if the 2019-2020 winter season does not produce adequate precipitation.

Lack of precipitation affects water levels in lakes, rivers, and reservoirs.  Lake Mead, which is held in place by the Hoover Dam, supplies the bulk of water used by residents in Bullhead City and other populated areas along the Colorado River (Associated Press, 2019).

In April, 2019, Congress passed an updated Colorado River Drought Contingency Plan which affects Arizona, California, Nevada, and other states dependent on the Colorado River for water and hydroelectric power.  If Arizona loses its Colorado River allotment, communities will have to pump groundwater, which can be contaminated with natural nitrate and arsenic, or find other alternatives, such as the unpopular use of recycled water (Whitman, 2019).                                                                                                                                         

Removing contaminants raises the cost of water to consumers.  The ideal situation is “to pump only as much groundwater as flows back underground, a balance known as safe yield, by 2025” (Whitman, 2019, para. 13).  But that is a tough goal to implement.  Water conservation measures can stifle growth, an unpopular idea in high-growth areas.

Currently, the Colorado River supplies water to more than 30 million people in seven states, with 70% of that water used for agriculture (Zielinski, 2010).  When government officials designated water allotments to these states in 1922, there were far fewer people living in the region.  And the strain is showing: “the Colorado River no longer regularly reaches the sea” (Zielinski, 2010, para.10).  In fact, it turns into a pathetic mud puddle 50 miles north of the Pacific Ocean.

The Los Angeles Department of Water and Power (DWP) plans to build a solar-powered pump station south of Hoover Dam on the Colorado River that would continually refill Lake Mead and produce a continuous supply of hydroelectric power to millions of people in California.  The fear is that this project would shrink water supplies to communities farther down the Colorado River—such as Bullhead City (Grossman, 2018).

Shrinking water supplies, smaller water allotments, and increased demand have fueled tensions between the states dependent on the Colorado River—especially, between Arizona and California.  And those tensions are not going away anytime soon (Runyon & Jaspers, 2019).

Preparedness, Mitigation, Response, and Recovery

Bullhead City has its own Drought/Water Shortage Contingency Plan.  The Arizona State Legislature passed House bill 2277 in 2005 which requires communities to develop and maintain a system water plan that includes three parts: a water supply plan, a water conservation plan, and a drought preparedness plan.  This requirement has become part of the State’s water resource management plan to develop preparedness and mitigation strategies at both the local and state level (City of Bullhead City, 2016).

The United States Bureau of Reclamation (USBR) also requires local communities to develop drought/water shortage contingency plans to conserve water.  These plans outline community response to reductions in the water supply due to drought, infrastructure failure, or other causes (City of Bullhead City, 2016).

Bullhead City depends solely on the Colorado River for its water supply.  Arizona’s water allotment was designated in the 1922 Colorado River Compact.  “The city of Bullhead City diverts its Colorado River surface water allocation through groundwater wells” (City of Bullhead City, 2016, p. 5).  This is possible because of the Colorado River aquifer that exists.

The Secretary of the Interior can declare a shortage of Colorado River water.  All states dependent on the Colorado River would be forced to share in the water shortage as determined  by the 2007 Record of Decision – Colorado River Interim Guidelines for Lower Basin Shortages and the Coordinated Operations for Lake Powell and Lake Mead.  Bullhead City’s right to Colorado River water is fourth priority, which means that communities with higher priority will get their Colorado River water first.  The Mohave County Water Authority (MCWA) has set aside 107, 239 acre-feet of long-term water credits for Bullhead City.  Bullhead City, along with other Colorado River communities, has been given until 2026 to put preparedness plans in place to respond to drought and water shortages (City of Bullhead City, 2016).

If the water credits are eventually used, Bullhead City has a contract with the Central Arizona Project water canal to use groundwater pumping to recover their allotted water.  The use of such credits would incur extra costs that would be passed on to consumers (City of Bullhead City, 2016).

Bullhead City has developed plans to respond to a 20% and a 40% reduction in water supplies.  Both plans call for the unpopular use of reclaimed (recycled) water.  The extensive use of reclaimed water would require the building of extra infrastructure (City of Bullhead City, 2016). 

The response plan for Bullhead City has been developed as a staged response with the following components: water use reduction; priority users and water reduction; water rates/financial incentives; the role of private water companies; preparedness and mitigation plans for private water companies sub-contracted by Bullhead City; voluntary versus mandatory water reduction; agricultural irrigation versus drinking water; water conservation; public education; stored water recovery and delivery; scenarios of probable water shortage conditions; the use of reclaimed water; demand versus supply evaluation.  These plans would be implemented according to the water level in Lake Mead.  The strictest water management plans would be enforced when the level in Lake Mead is at or below 1,025 feet (City of Bullhead City, 2016).

In the meantime, Bullhead City has waged a public education campaign about the use of xeriscaping using low-water plants and trees; drip irrigation; and harvesting rainwater for landscape use (Water Resources Research Center, 2019).  Tips on conserving water are freely available on the city’s website.  Water rebates are available to consumers.  Water usage reports are available for public perusal.  And water development fees have been imposed to improve water services in the city (City of Bullhead City, 2019).

Bullhead City receives an average of 3 to12 inches of rain a year (Arizona Water Facts, 2019).  Epcor, a private water company, has raised consumer water rates 25% to 35% during the drought.  This situation has prompted Bullhead City to introduce Proposition 415, which would approve a bond up to $130 million to buy out the company (City of Bullhead City, 2019).  If approved, the city will own another source of water and provide water services at a lower cost to consumers.

Identify Gaps and Suggest Expansion of Preparedness, Mitigation, Response, and Recovery Plans

Bullhead City has not done enough to control population growth.  The city advertises itself as the lowest cost of living city in the state based on a 2015 study done by the Council for Community and Economic Research (Merrill, 2015).  This draws more people on fixed incomes from within and outside of the state.  These people can ill afford to pay higher water rates and development fees.  And if water supplies are, indeed, shrinking, Bullhead City can ill afford to add more people to its population.

Furthermore, if Bullhead City plans to use reclaimed water in the future, it needs to build the infrastructure now, and not wait for an emergency situation to arise.

Initial Evaluation and Emergency Management Procedures

Drought is the main hazard facing Bullhead City, Arizona.  It is dependent on water supplied by the Colorado River and the allotment it receives based on the Colorado River Compact of 1922.  Although it has plans in place for a 20% and 40% reduction in water supplies, it has not planned for anything more severe.  At the very worst, the governor of the State of Arizona would declare a disaster and water would have to be trucked in for residential and business use.  A lack of water would lead to social chaos and fighting among citizens.  There would be a mass exodus of people out of town.  Law enforcement would be heavily involved to control the situation. EMS personnel and local hospitals would have to deal with people who were severely dehydrated.  Animals would be abandoned and left to die from thirst.  City officials would be overwhelmed by demands for water.

Interrelationships among the Core Components of the Emergency Management Phases

Drought and water shortages can vary from season to season.  Preparedness plans to deal with these problems and to mitigate the costs and impacts are essential to protect the vital resource of water.  Well-conceived plans must be in place to respond to serious shortages of water for the sake of the community.  If the problem becomes serious enough, there might not be a recovery phase.

Conclusion

The desert was never meant to support millions of people.  Water is a precious resource that has not been taken seriously enough by government officials, city planners, and members of the real estate and development professions.  Bullhead City is dependent on a river it cannot control, weather and climate it cannot control, and State politicians it cannot control.  The city must do whatever it takes to protect its water supply.

Dawn Pisturino

Thomas Edison State University

September 24, 2019

References

Arizona Water Facts. (2019). Bullhead City, Arizona. Retrieved from

       http://www.arizonawaterfacts.com/mtw/bullhead-city.

Associated Press. (2019. June). Arizona out of short-term drought. Mohave Daily News.

       Retrieved from http://www.mohavedailynews.com/news/arizona-out-of-short-term-

       drought/article_8c36c50a-9259-11e9-ab41-9b4eacdd7bd1.html

City Data. (2017). Bullhead City, Arizona. Retrieved from

       http://www.city-data.com/city/Bullhead-City-Arizona.html

City of Bullhead City. (2019). City of Bullhead City. Retrieved from

       http://www.bullheadcity.com

City of Bullhead City. (2016). City of bullhead city drought/water shortage contingency

       plan. Retrieved fromhttp://www.bullheadcity.com/home/showdocument?id=7546

Grossman, D. (2018, July). The hoover dam changed america – And it might do it again.

       Popular Mechanics. Retrieved from

https://www.popularmechanics.com/technology/infrastructure/922539919/the-hoover-dam-

       changed-americaand-it-might-do-it-again.

Merrill, Laurie. (2015, June). Which arizona cities will cost you the least. AZ Central.

       Retrieved from https://www.azcentral.com/story/money/business/2015/06/17/bullhead-

       city-cheapest-arizona-city/28899239.

National Drought Mitigation Center. (2019). What is drought. Retrieved from

       http://www.drought.unl.edu/Education/Drought forKids/What is Drought.aspx.

Runyon, L. & Jaspers, B. (2019, February). What is happening with the colorado river drought

       plans. KPBS. Retrieved from

https://www.kpbs.org/news/2019/feb/07/what-is-happening-colorado-river-drought-plans.

Water Resources Research Center. (2019). Low-Water tree and plant guide. Retrieved from

       http://www.wrrc.arizona.edu

Whitman, E. (2019, April). After colorado river drought plan, what’s next for water in arizona.

       Retrieved from https://www.phoenixnewtimes.com/content/print/view/11268880.

Zielinski, S. (2010, October). The colorado river runs dry. Smithsonian Magazine.

       Retrieved from https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/the-colorado-river-runs-

       dry-61427169.

The Evolution of Emergency Management in the United States

Associated Press

What is “emergency management?”  According to Haddow, Bullock, and Coppola (2017), “the definition of emergency management can be extremely broad and all-encompassing.”  It is an evolving discipline whose priorities have changed in response to diverse events, political leadership, and scientific advances.

The nature of the events and the responses of political leaders have been the most influential in shaping emergency management priorities and organizational structure.  Since emergency management “deals with risk and risk avoidance” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017), no single event will be handled in precisely the same way.  A terrorist attack like 9/11, which was a major criminal event that involved foreigners and foreign countries, will have a much greater impact on the psyche of the American people and affect a broader range of government departments, than a natural event like a hurricane or earthquake.

The U.S. Constitution “gives the states the responsibility for public health and safety – hence the responsibility for public risks – with the federal government in a secondary role.  The federal role is to help when the state, local or individual entity is overwhelmed” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017).

What kind of events can hit American communities?  Natural events include floods, earthquakes, hurricanes, storm surges, tornadoes, wildfires, land movements such as avalanches and mudslides, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions, severe winter storms, drought, extremes of heat and cold, coastal erosion, thunderstorms, lightning, and hail.  Technological events can include building fires, dam failures, hazardous material incidents, nuclear and radiation accidents. 

Criminal events include terrorism and the potential use of biological, radiological, and nuclear weapons (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017).      

On May 31, 1889, the South Fork dam in Johnstown, PA failed, and “unleashed 20,000,000 tons of water that devastated” the town and killed 2,209 residents (National Park Service,2017).  The failure was caused by inadequate construction, maintenance, and repair.  This event caught the attention of the entire world, and people banded together to help “the Johnstown sufferers” (National Park Service, 2017).

In 1803, Congress passed legislation authorizing federal funds to help a town in New Hampshire destroyed by fire.  This set the precedence for federal involvement in local events.  But it was under Franklin D. Roosevelt “that the federal government began to make significant investments in emergency management functions” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017).

The Reconstruction Finance Corporation and the Bureau of Public Roads were authorized “to make disaster loans available for repair and reconstruction of certain public facilities” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017) in the 1930s. The Tennessee Valley Authority – established to produce hydroelectric power – also sought to reduce flooding in the valley (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017).

The Flood Control Act of 1936 authorized the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers “to design and build flood-control projects” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017).  Now, “humans could control nature” and promote growth and development in areas previously unavailable (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017).

The 1950s and the Cold War brought a whole new dynamic to the discipline of emergency management.  Scientists had succeeded in creating a whole new arsenal of weapons with the capability of destroying the world.  The potential for nuclear holocaust was so great, “civil defense programs proliferated across communities” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017).  People built bomb shelters to protect themselves, their families, and their communities.  A feeling of paranoia gripped the entire nation as U.S. politicians engaged diplomatically with representatives from the Soviet Union.                                                                            

The Federal Civil Defense Administration (FCDA) was a poorly-funded department “whose main role was to provide technical assistance” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017) in the event of nuclear attack.  In reality, however, it was the civil defense directors at the local and state levels who shaped the policies and response to potential disaster.

The 1960s focused attention on natural disasters, and the National Flood Insurance Act of 1968 was passed by Congress.  The National Flood Insurance Program was subsequently created, which helped to ease the burden on homeowners located in flood areas and to act proactively before the floods began.  This legislation emphasized “the concept of community-based mitigation” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017).  When communities joined the NFIP, they committed themselves to passing local ordinances which controlled development in floodplain areas.  The federal government produced floodplain maps to support these ordinances.

George Bernstein, who became head of the Federal Insurance Administration under President Richard Nixon, strengthened the program by “linking the mandatory purchase of flood insurance to all homeowner loans that were backed by federal mortgages” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017).  This led to the Flood Insurance Act of 1972.

During the 1970s, “more than 100 federal agencies were involved in some aspect of risks and disasters” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017).  The fragmentation, conflicts, and confusion that resulted were no different on the state and local levels.  When Three Mile Island occurred, these problems became all-too-apparent to the general public.  As a result, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) was created by Congress under President Jimmy Carter, with the director reporting directly to the president.

Reorganization Plan Number 3, which created FEMA, sought to establish the following guidelines: FEMA workers “were to anticipate, prepare for, and respond to major civil emergencies” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017); the agency would demand “the most efficient use of all available resources” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017); “emergency responsibilities should be extensions of federal agencies” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017); and “federal hazard mitigation activities should be closely linked with emergency preparedness and response functions” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017).

In the 1980s, civil defense became the priority under President Ronald Reagan.  Director Louis Giuffrida reorganized FEMA, moved multiple departments into one building, and placed the agency’s priority “on government preparedness for a nuclear attack” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017).  Giuffrida resigned after a financial scandal, which undermined the credibility of the agency.  The new director, Julius Becton, worked to restore “integrity to the operations and appropriations of the agency” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017).  Under Becton’s leadership, natural hazards like earthquakes, hurricanes, and floods were given a low priority, confirming that the agency “continued the pattern of isolating resources for national security priorities without recognizing the potential of a major natural disaster” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017).

Senator Al Gore, during Senate hearings, questioned FEMA’s priorities and its preparedness in the event of a major earthquake.  FEMA was pressured to create an earthquake preparedness plan which “would later become the standard for all of the federal agencies’ response operations” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017).

Under George H.W. Bush, multiple natural disasters occurred – including Hurricane Andrew – which affected people’s perception of FEMA.  “People wanted, and expected, their government to be there to help in their time of need” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017).  FEMA was perceived as weak and ineffective.

James Witt was appointed Director by President Bill Clinton.  Witt had extensive experience in emergency management and reorganized FEMA to support community relations, the efficient use of new technology, and an emphasis on “mitigation and risk avoidance” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017).

The 1990s heralded a new wave of natural disasters.  FEMA successfully handled the Midwest floods of 1993 and initiated “the largest voluntary buyout and relocation program to date in an effort to move people out of the floodplain . . .” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017).

Director Witt became a member of Clinton’s cabinet and persuaded state governors “to include their state emergency management directors in their cabinets” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017).  This is how important emergency management had become.

The bombing of the World Trade Center in 1993 and the Oklahoma Bombing in 1995 reaffirmed the notion that terrorist events fall into the category of “risks and the consequences of those risks” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017).  Emergency management has been an important part of handling similar events.

FEMA’s Project impact: Building Disaster-Resistant Communities heralded “a new community-based approach” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017) that required communities “to identify risks and establish a plan to reduce those risks” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017).  The ultimate goal was for the community to “promote sustainable economic development, protect and enhance its natural resources, and ensure a better quality of life for its citizens” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017).

Project Impact was defunded under President George W. Bush.  After the unexpected earthquake in Seattle, however, FEMA received a lot of praise from Seattle’s mayor, and the program was restored.  Seattle, it turned out, had been “one of the most successful Project impact communities” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017).

The events of 9/11 proved the effectiveness of FEMA when “hundreds of response personnel initiated their operations within just minutes of the onset of events” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017).  FEMA was then incorporated into the newly-formed Department of Homeland Security and lost much of its effectiveness and power.  The new National Incident Management System (NIMS) fell under the auspices of the Director of Operations Coordination (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017).

The threat of Hurricane Katrina off the Gulf Coast in 2005 prompted President Bush to declare “a disaster in advance of an emergency event for the states in the projected impact zone” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017) and caused DHS/FEMA to shoulder the responsibility.  Their response was a failure.

Obama’s appointee, W. Craig Fugate, designated victims of disasters as “survivors” and developed the Whole Community concept which emphasized “preparedness partnerships that had been developed among federal, state, local, private sector, voluntary, and non-profit entities” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017).  Involving people from all sectors of the community has increased the effectiveness of emergency management response to disasters.

The history and development of emergency management prove how events influence and shape government policies, departmental organization, leadership priorities, and government response to national emergencies.  When all citizens get involved, emergency preparedness and response protect communities and mitigate the costs of recovery.

Dawn Pisturino

Thomas Edison State University

August 8, 2019

Copyright 2019-2021 Dawn Pisturino. All Rights Reserved.

References

Haddow, G.D., Bullock, J.A., & Coppola, D.P. (2017). Introduction to emergency

       management. Cambridge, MA: Elsevier Inc.

National Park Service. (2017). Johnstown flood national memorial pennsylvania.

       Retrieved from http://www.nps.gov/jofl/index.htm.

Why does Australia have so much Natural Gas?

Gorgon Project, Chevron.com

Chevron is a multinational corporation with offices, plants, pipelines, partnerships, and subsidiaries located all over the world. One of the company’s largest and most important overseas projects is the Gorgon Project – and associated smaller projects – situated off the coast of Western Australia.

Australia does not produce a lot of oil, but it produces an abundance of natural gas. This phenomenon is due to the geology of the Australian continent (Blewett, 2012, p. 221).

The Northern Carnarvon Basin, created during the Paleozoic period, is located off the northwestern coast of Australia, on the northwest shelf. “The basin is Australia’s premier hydrocarbon province where the majority of deep water wells have been drilled (greater than 500 meters water depth) . . . Almost all the hydrocarbon resources are reservoired within the Upper Triassic, Jurassic, and Lower Cretaceous sandstones beneath the regional early Cretaceous seal” (Geoscience Australia, 2020). The faults on this area run north or northeast, among “structural highs and sub-basins” (Geoscience Australia, 2020) which occurred over four geological phases involving glacial and tectonic activity (Geoscience Australia, 2020).

The basin covers 535,000 square kilometers, with water depths up to 4,500 meters. Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic sediment covers the area, up to 15,000 meters thick. The area comprises two Mesozoic petroleum supersystems (Geoscience Australia, 2020).

Total petroleum systems of the northwest shelf include the Dingo-Mungaroo/Barrow system and the Locker/Mungaroo/Barrow system. In the Dingo-Mungaroo/Barrow system, the hydrocarbon source rock is composed of Jurassic Dingo Claystone. The reservoir rocks comprise the Triassic Mungaroo Formation, Jurassic rocks, and the Cretaceous Barrow Group. In the Locker/Mungaroo/Barrow system, the source rock is composed of Triassic Locker Shale. The reservoir rocks comprise the Triassic Mungaroo Formation and the Cretaceous Barrow Group. Muderong Shale makes up the vast seal over much of the area (Bishop, 1999, p.6-7).

A total petroleum system is composed of several elements: the depocenter, which is the basin; the source, which is made of rocks containing organic materials; the reservoir, which is made of porous, permeable rock, such as sandstone; the seal, which is made of impermeable rock, such as shale; the trap, which holds the accumulation of source rocks; the overburden, which is composed of sediments subjected to heat; and the migration pathways, which allow the source rocks to form a link with the trap (Blewett, 2012, p. 176).

Additionally, there must be geochemical processes which cause “trap formation, hydrocarbon generation, expulsion, migration, accumulation, and preservation” in a precise order with exact timing (Blewett, 2012, p. 176). Millions of years of geological events, such as the shifting of tectonic plates and glacier movement, as well as extreme changes in weather, such as the change from the Ice Age to a more temperate climate, formed the particular geology which makes up the Australian continent and its surrounding oceans (Blewett, 2012, p. 217).

“The main trap styles in the [Carnarvon] basin are anticlines, horsts, fault roll-over structures, and stratigraphic pinch-outs beneath the regional seal” (Blewett, 2012, p. 220). Australia has an abundance of natural gas due to the type of vegetation which decayed and became trapped in “non-marine coaly source rocks” (Blewett, 2012, p. 221) and the fact that some basins did not evolve long enough to create the conditions to produce oil.

Chevron entered the Western Australia oil and gas market when it purchased Caltex in 1952. In 1980, the Gorgon natural gas field was discovered west of Barrow Island; and in 2003, Chevron received permission from the Western Australia government to build a natural gas plant on Barrow Island (Chevron Australia, 2020).

Barrow Island is located 60 kilometers off the northwest coast of Western Australia. Chevron’s Gorgon Project includes three liquefied natural gas (LNG) processing plants capable of producing 15.6 million tonnes per annum (MTPA), and a domestic natural gas plant capable of producing 300 terajoules of natural gas per day (Chevron Australia, 2020). According to the operators of the Dampier-Bunbury Pipeline, which transmits this natural gas to distributors, one terajoule of natural gas can provide energy to the average household in Western Australia for 50 years, so Chevron’s Gorgon Project is a significant contribution to Western Australia’s regional economy (Dampier Bunbury Pipeline, 2020). The project is expected to be productive for 40 or more years (Chevron Australia, 2020).

The onshore Gorgon Project also includes three acid gas removal units, two LNG tanks, four condensate tanks, three CO2 compression plants, two monoethylene glycol (MEG) processing plants, 2 inlet processing units, and ground flare capabilities. Marine facilities, an airport, employee housing, a fire station, laboratory, warehouse, workshop, and a permanent operations facility complete the physical structure of the Barrows Island onshore project (Chevron Australia, 2020).

“A subsea gas gathering system is located on the ocean floor at the Gorgon and Jansz-Io fields, located about 65 and 130 kilometers respectively off the west coast of Barrow Island” (Chevron Australia, 2020). From there, natural gas from both fields is transmitted to the Barrow Island facility by undersea pipelines. After processing, gas for domestic use is transmitted through a 90 kilometer domestic gas pipeline that ties in to the Dampier-Bunbury Natural Gas Pipeline. Once the LNG is processed, it is stored and shipped by large LNG tankers to Japan and other Asian countries (Chevron Australia, 2020).

The Dampier-Bunbury Pipeline (DBP), at 1600 kilometers long, is the longest pipeline in Australia. Built in 1984, it is expected to last for another 50 years. Every year, it receives 112,000 hours of planned maintenance to ensure its safety and optimal condition. Twenty-seven turbine compressor units, located at ten sites along the pipeline, exert enough pressure to push the natural gas along the pipeline. It has functioned at 99% efficiency for the last ten years. Owned by the Australian Gas Infrastructure Group, more than 2 million homes and businesses benefit from the pipeline. The company also supplies natural gas to power generators, mines, and manufacturers — and other companies can tie in to the pipeline (Dampier Bunbury Pipeline, 2020).

DBP owns 34,000 kilometers of distribution networks, 5,500 kilometers of transmission pipelines, 52 petrajoules of storage capacity, employs 315 workers, and contracts with 1,600 contractors. The company’s goal is to provide natural gas at the lowest possible cost. The company provides 21% natural gas for power generation; 39% for mineral processing; 9% for other industrial purposes; 9% for retail outlets; 22% for mining.  Alcoa and BHP Billiton are two of its large industrial customers. The company provides natural gas to Synergy and Alinta for power generation (Dampier Bunbury Pipeline, 2020).

DBP operates the Dampier-Bunbury Pipeline for the Australian Gas Infrastructure Group (AGIG). It also plans and constructs metering stations, executes the tie-ins for other companies, and provides an odorization service. In 2013, “DBP completed the metering station for the connection of the Chevron-operated Gorgon Project” (Dampier Bunbury Pipeline, 2020).

Transmission pipelines are usually 6-48 inches in diameter and can handle pressures of 200-1500 psi. The high pressures move the natural gas through the line. Distribution pipelines are separated into main lines and service lines and carry natural gas to homes and businesses. They operate at lower pressures for safety reasons (Pipeline Safety Trust, 2019).

Compressors fueled by electric or natural gas use high pressure to push the gas through the pipeline. Compressor stations are located about every 50 to 100 miles along the line, and pressures can be adjusted as needed (Pipeline Safety Trust, 2019).

Gas pipeline operators, such as DBP in Western Australia, monitor the pipeline for problems using “a Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition system (SCADA). A SCADA is a pipeline computer system designed to gather information such as flow rate through the pipeline, operational status, pressure, and temperature readings” (Pipeline Safety Trust, 2019). These readings help operators to address problems quickly and easily. Operators, for example, can isolate a section of pipe that is malfunctioning or adjust flow rates via the compressors and valves (Pipeline Safety Trust, 2019).

When a transmission line reaches the utility company’s “city gate,” it begins to transmit gas into the lower pressure distribution system that ultimately delivers the gas to homes and businesses. This is where the odorant is added to the gas. Gas mains, which are usually 2-24 inches in diameter, utilize pressures up to 200 psi. The service lines, on the other hand, only use pressures up to 10 psi (Pipeline Safety Trust, 2019).

The gas utility company is responsible for monitoring flow rates and pressures along the distribution line. When regulators sense a change in pressure, they will open or close in order to adjust the amount of pressure in the line. Relief valves release excess gas if the pressures build too high (Pipeline Safety Trust, 2019).

Pipeline operators, such as DBP in Western Australia, must monitor pipes for corrosion, leaks, breakages, and construction workers digging too close to the lines. They must follow pressure specifications determined by government regulatory bodies, otherwise, pipelines can become a safety and environmental hazard to the local community (Pipeline Safety Trust, 2019).

Barrow Island is a Class-A nature reserve, and Chevron has worked hard with the Western Australia government to maintain the local habitat for the native flora and fauna. Their goal to reduce CO2 emissions has led them to construct a CO2 injection system which allows them to inject excess CO2 from natural gas into a deep underwater trap called the Dupuy Formation, located two kilometers underneath Barrow Island. This system is projected to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 40% and is fully supported by the Australian government (Chevron Australia, 2020).

Chevron is a well-respected energy corporation in Western Australia. The Gorgon Project alone is projected to contribute $400 billion to Australia’s Gross Domestic Product and $69 billion in taxes to the federal government between 2009 and 2040. With its booming natural gas industry in place, Australia is now a leading producer of natural gas in the world market (Chevron Australia, 2020).

Dawn Pisturino

Thomas Edison State University

October 27, 2020

Copyright 2020-2021 Dawn Pisturino. All Rights Reserved.

 References

Bishop, M.G. (1999). Total Petroleum Systems of the Northwest Shelf, Australia: The Dingo-

       Mungaroo/Barrow and the Locker/Mungaroo/Barrow. Reston: U.S. Geological Survey.

Blewett, R. (Ed.). (2012). Shaping a Nation: A Geology of Australia. Canberra: Australia

       National University.

Chevron Australia. (2020). Gorgon project overview. Retrieved from

https://www.australia.chevron.com.

Dampier Bunbury Pipeline. (2020). About dbp. Retrieved from https://www.dbp.net.au.

Geoscience Australia. (2020). Energy. Retrieved from

https://www.ga.gov.au/scientific-topics/energy.

Pipeline Safety Trust. (2019). Pipeline basics & specifics about natural gas pipelines. Retrieved

       From http://www.pstrust.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/2019-PST-Briefing-Paper-02-Nat

       GasBasics.pdf.

My Message to Joe Biden

Photo from Politico

1. If America is such a hateful, racist country, it’s time for Democrats to start leaving and moving to countries more satisfactory to their tastes.
2. What kind of president deliberately raises gas and food prices on the American people? A third world dictator.
3. Joe Biden hasn’t addressed or solved any problems. All he does is crack open the piggy bank, throw money around, and call everybody a racist.
4. Biden INVITED illegals to come here on the campaign trail, and videos prove it.
5. It’s always been obvious to me that the COVID “pandemic” was created by Dr. Fauci and the Democratic Party to hurt Pres. Trump and the American people. 3 million people died as a result of their treachery.
6. There is no doubt in my mind that the 2020 election was rigged. Joe Biden and Kamala Harris know it, too. The truth will eventually come out.
7. The people arrested on Jan. 6th are now regarded as “political prisoners” being held by the Democratic Party. What happened was hardly a siege or comparable in any way to 9/11 or any other disaster.
8. President Trump is a martyr and national hero, thanks to the despicable lies and fraudulent efforts by Democrats to bring him down. He will live on long after Obama, Biden, Pelosi, Schumer, and Schiff are gone.
9. The Supreme Court ruled 9-0 that Biden broke the law. He must be impeached.
10. Kamala Harris is the worst vice-president ever. She’s a worthless do-nothing.
11. The only people who are woke are the ones who woke up and left the Democratic Party.
12. I am not, never have been, and never will be a member of the Democratic Party. I’m Independent to the core.
13. ALL LIVES MATTER.
14. Devout Catholics do not support abortion. I support ex-communicating Biden and Pelosi from the Catholic Church.

Message sent to the White House June 4, 2021

Dawn Pisturino

June 4, 2021

Copyright 2021 Dawn Pisturino. All Rights Reserved.

Jobs at ExxonMobil and Chevron

Richmond, California facility

Gas companies like ExxonMobil (https://jobs.exxonmobil.com) and Chevron (https://careers.chevron.com) rely on experienced professionals to maximize company operations and to develop new forms of existing and alternative energy for the future.

ExxonMobil currently lists 165 jobs for their operations around the world. Experienced engineers, from all backgrounds and specialties, are in great demand: electrical, piping, technical, operations, instrumentation, safety, quality, etc. In addition, ExxonMobil is actively seeking lab technicians and chemists; IT professionals and software developers; people from the financial sector; health professionals; firefighting and emergency response personnel; salespeople; and transportation, maintenance, and supply chain workers. Some of these jobs require German and French as a primary or secondary language. U.S. citizenship is not required.

ExxonMobil also offers internships to qualified students working on their master’s or doctorate, particularly in the fields of geology, geophysics, and all the earth sciences.

Chevron is seeking the same kind of expert professionals and offers internships to students. Chevron also offers jobs at facilities around the world.

Both companies emphasize diversity, experienced professionals, and innovation. People working for these companies need strong STEM skills: science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. They need strong computer skills; the ability to gather, analyze, and interpret data; and a working knowledge of how business operates.

While the ExxonMobil website was straight-forward and business-like, the Chevron website was exciting, future-oriented, and enticing. If I were seeking a job with one of these companies, I would start with Chevron.

Dawn Pisturino

October 8, 2020

Thomas Edison State University

Copyright 2020 Dawn Pisturino. All Rights Reserved.