Both the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001 in New York City and Hurricane Katrina on August 29, 2005 were major disasters. One was a manmade disaster and the other a natural disaster. In New York City, the damage was contained in Manhattan. But in New Orleans, the damage was widespread and uncontrolled.
On the night of September 11, 2001, Mayor Rudy Giuliani held a press conference to inform citizens of New York City and the entire nation of what happened, the response to the event, and future recovery. He talked about his own experiences during the event and how he and the people with him survived.
Mayor Giuliani presented himself as calm, rational, and confident. He maintained his composure and self-control. He made it clear to the public that everything was under control. He reassured them that everything was okay, and they were safe.
His message was positive and hopeful. He honored the victims and praised the people who had evacuated in a peaceful and civilized manner and helped each other along the way. He emphasized how proud he was of the people and first responders of New York City.
Giuliani became emotional when talking about the first responders and fire and police personnel who died. He asked everyone to pray for the victims and to be grateful that they were alive.
Towards the end of the news conference, he stressed that members of the Muslim community would be protected. He condemned all acts of vigilante violence and retaliation. He asked people who worked in Manhattan to stay home from work.
The mayor projected a feeling of hope, security, and confidence that the U.S. government would deal with the perpetrators and New York City would rebuild and be stronger than before.
Three days after Hurricane Katrina made landfall in New Orleans, Mayor Ray Nagin made an impassioned plea on WWL Radio for help. He described the horrific conditions in New Orleans and the lack of response by FEMA and the federal government. His anger and frustration were real. He was clearly traumatized by events.
When I was listening to him, I kept thinking that here is a man who feels powerless. There was apparently no clear chain of command or designated people in authority. Mayor Nagin was there, on the ground, asking for the authority to do something from people who seemed indifferent to the situation. He reminded everyone that FEMA knew about the problems with the pumping stations and did nothing. He wanted to know when the help promised by the federal government was coming. He deplored the fact that valuable resources were being wasted on looters and lawlessness instead of rescuing and helping victims.
At the end of the broadcast, he called on the public to be active in contacting authorities and demanding help for New Orleans. He contrasted the immediate response and aftermath of 9/11 to the lack of response to New Orleans. He was outraged.
Mayor Nagin had every right to be outraged by the slow response to Hurricane Katrina. And maybe his angry message was what it took to get things done.
Authentic History. (Presenter). (2011, January 11). 9/11 news coverage: 10:00 pm: Mayor rudy
giuliani press conference [Video file]. Retrieved from
At 8:46 a.m. on September 11, 2001, American Airlines Flight 11 crashed into the North Tower of the World Trade Center in New York City (911 Memorial, 2018).
John Murphy, CEO of Oppenheimer Funds, was jogging in Battery Park when he saw the smoke. He assumed that an airplane had inadvertently crashed into the World Trade Center (Argenti, 2002).
Mary Beth Bardin, executive vice-president of public affairs and communications at Verizon, was stuck in traffic when she noticed the smoke. She assumed that a building was on fire in downtown Manhattan. When the cab driver turned on the news, she learned that an airplane had crashed into the World Trade Center (Argenti, 2002).
Verizon suffered major communications damage. “The attack knocked out 300,000 voice access lines and 4.5 million data circuits and left ten cellular towers inactive, depriving 14,000 businesses and 20,000 residential customers of service” (Argenti, para. 9, 2002).
Communication breakdowns abounded during the emergency response to the attacks on the World Trade Center. 911 operators had no clue of what was actually happening. Orders to evacuate were misunderstood or not received. Telephone lines were jammed with callers. Signals to firefighter radios failed. Public address and intercom systems inside the World Trade Center went out (CBS News, 2004; Sharp, 2011).
Confusion and lack of situational awareness led to higher casualties. People in the South Tower were told not to evacuate and to wait for instructions and help from emergency personnel. Others evacuated up, toward the roof, not knowing that they needed a key to get onto the roof (CBS News, 2004).
A “long-standing rivalry between the NYPD and FDNY” (CBS News, para. 23, 2004) led to disputes over command authority. Fire and police personnel were using different radio channels and could not communicate with one another (CBS News, 2004; Sharp, 2011). A repeater system installed in the World Trade Center after the 1993 bombing was not completely functional (Sharp, 2011). All of these issues were addressed in the 9/11 Commission Report.
* * *
People in New YorkCity Knew Something was Happening, but They Didn’t Know What!
A lot of Changes have Happened Since 9/11:
Post-9/11, the Department of Homeland Security was created, and a National Incident Management System was established to designate clear lines of authority during disaster events.
The role of Communications has evolved.
Better technologies have been developed.
The rise of Facebook, Twitter, Google, and other social media networks has allowed two-way communication with the public.
Emergency managers now hire trained communication specialists to communicate accurate, timely information to the media, community and national leaders, and the public.(Haddow, 2017).
* * *
Whyare these Changes Important?
New York City now has a state-of-the-art fire department operations center. During a disaster, the FDOC contacts other agencies for help. Personnel report to FDOC senior staff. The department’s incident management teams can be activated. FDOC can access NYPD videos, the Department of Transportation digital photographs, and live videos from media helicopters and ground vehicles. FDOC can monitor, record, and replay radio transmissions from Fire, EMS, NYPD, OEM, and others. FDOC can act as a command center. (Sharp, 2011)
FDNY now uses multi-frequency radio systems to communicate with each other and NYPD (Sharp, 2011).
Training in National Incident Management System processes is now mandatory to ensure that agencies are working together, using the same language, and sharing information with each other (Sharp, 2011).
The changes made in New York City have been duplicated in communities all across the country.
Community first responders now have social media sites on Facebook, Twitter, and other social networks to educate the public about disaster preparedness; relay accurate, timely information to the public during a disaster event; and help members of the community to register for disaster aid and find relief shelters (Haddow, 2017).
* * *
Use the Internet for Disaster Information:
In 2001, YouTube, Google News, Facebook, and Twitter did not exist (Praetorius, 2012).
Today, the Internet allows free access to all kinds of information:
Social networks like Facebook
Blogs like Blogger and WordPress
Microblogs like Twitter
Crowdsourcing and Forums like LiveJournal
Digital Mapping like Google Maps
Websites
Podcasts and TV and Radio broadcasts
Video Sharing like YouTube
Photo Sharing like Instagram
Wiki sites like Wikipedia (Haddow, 2017).
* * *
Participate with Social Media:
“Social media is imperative to emergency management because the public uses these communication tools regularly” (Haddow, p. 171, 2017).
Submitting videos, photos, digital maps, and information
Receiving information about casualties, injuries, and damage
Communicating with friends, family, and co-workers
Raising money for disaster relief
Learning about preparedness and evacuation routes
Receiving guidance, information, and moral support
Learning how to find relief shelters and registering for aid
Access to FEMA information
Access to press conferences and local news(Haddow, 2017).
* * *
Summing it all Up:
“The mission of an effective disaster communication strategy is to provide timely and accurate information to the public in all four phases of emergency management” (Haddow, p. 162, 2017).
“Information sharing is the basis of effective disaster communications” (Haddow, p. 191, 2017).
(This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC By-NC-ND)
* * *
Honor the Heroes!
(This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC By-NC-ND)
Michael means “who is as God.” Among Jews, Christians, and Muslims, he is the highest angel in the hierarchy of angels. His occult name is Sabathiel. In Islam, he is known as Mika’il. The Zoroastrian book, Avesta, portrays him as Saosyhant, the redeemer.
As chief among angels, he is revered as the “angel of repentance, righteousness, mercy, and sanctification.” He stands guard over the nation of Israel. He is a known enemy of Satan. As the Prince of Light, he leads the angels of God against the angels of Satan in the Dead Sea scroll, The War of the Sons of Light Against the Sons of Darkness. In the Last days, he is the fierce angel who will finally slay the Dragon (Satan).
In 1950, Pope Pius XII affirmed Michael as the patron of policemen. Today, he watches over all first responders. He has been identified as the angel who stopped Abraham from sacrificing his son, Isaac, although this act has also been attributed to other angels, such as Metatron. Jewish tradition describes him as “the fire that Moses saw in the burning bush . . . ,” although some scholars attribute this to Zagzagel. Michael may have been one of the three angels who visited Abraham in his tent. Religious lore credits him with assisting the other three archangels – Raphael, Uriel, and Gabriel – with burying the body of Moses. In fact, Michael has been identified as the angel who fought with Satan over Moses’ body.
Islamic lore describes him as bearing wings “of the color of green emerald.” His body “is covered with saffron hairs, each of them containing a million faces and mouths and as many tongues which, in a million dialects, implore the pardon of Allah.” The Qu’ran claims the cherubim were created from Michael’s tears. The Persians regarded him as the sustainer of mankind.
Catholics pray for Michael’s heavenly intercession as St. Michael. They regard him as God’s warrior who protects the faithful from the Devil’s wily snares. As the angel of death, prayers to St. Michael request his intercession in a good and holy death. Fra Filippo portrayed him as the messenger who announced to the Virgin Mary that she would soon be taken up into Heaven.
Michael’s feast day is September 29th (the Feast of the Archangels).
Prayer to St. Michael, the Archangel
Saint Michael, the Archangel,
Defend us in battle!
Be our protection against the wickedness and snares of the devil;
May God rebuke him, we humbly pray;
And do thou, O Prince of the heavenly host,
By the power of God, thrust into hell Satan and all evil spirits
Who wander through the world for the ruin of souls.
Amen.
(1932)
(Eastern Orthodox Church icons) – The Eastern Orthodox Church celebrates Michael’s feast day on November 8th.
This painting by Cesare Nebbia tells the story of the four apparitions of Michael, the Archangel, that allegedly occurred in Southern Italy many centuries ago.
Apparition #1: A wealthy landowner, named Gargano, in the 3rd to 8th century C.E., lost a bull, became angry when he found the bull grazing near a cave, and shot a poisoned arrow at him. Miraculously, the arrow turned around and shot him instead! The local bishop ordered three days of prayer and fasting. On the third day, Michael appeared to the bishop and ordered him to “dedicate the cave to Christian worship.” Since the cave had been used by pagan worshippers in the past, the bishop did not honor Michael’s request.
Apparition #2: Michael allegedly appeared again in the year 492 C.E., but scholars have determined that the apparition actually occurred later, inspiring Duke Grimoaldo I to defeat the Greeks on May 8, 663 C.E., who had attacked the Sanctuary of Gargano. May 8th is now celebrated in the Roman Catholic Church as the Feast of the Anniversary of the Apparitions of St. Michael, the Archangel.
Apparition #3: After the victory over the Greeks, the cave was finally dedicated by local bishops to St. Michael. But Michael is reported to have said, “I founded it, I myself consecrated it.” When the bishops arrived at the cave, they found Michael’s footprint in a crude stone altar that was already erected there. Since then, the cave has been called the “Celestial Basilica” because Michael consecrated it to himself!
Apparition #4: In 1656, Michael ordered Bishop Alfonso Puccinelli to bless the stones of his cave. Michael carved the sign of the cross and the letters “M.A.” onto the stones. He then told the bishop that “anyone carrying the stones would be immune to the plague” that was ravaging southern Italy. The bishop’s city was cured of illness. The stones, known as St. Michael’s relics, are now used in exorcisms.
In popular culture, Longfellow wrote, in The Golden Legend, that Michael was the spirit of the planet Mercury who brought patience to mankind. In the Hollywood movie, The Bishop’s Wife (1947), Cary Grant plays Michael in the form of a mysterious assistant who suddenly appears to aid the Episcopalian Bishop Brougham.
Dawn Pisturino
September 7, 2021
Copyright 2021 Dawn Pisturino. All Rights Reserved.
At 8:46 a.m. on September 11, 2001, American Airlines Flight 11 crashed into the North Tower of the World Trade Center in New York City. Seventeen minutes later, United Airlines Flight 175 smashed into the South Tower. At 9:37 a.m., American Airlines Flight 77 nose-dived into the Pentagon building in Arlington, Virginia. All three airlines had been hijacked by members of the radical Islamic terrorist organization, Al Qaeda (Haddow, 2017; 911 Memorial, 2018).
Communication breakdowns were widespread during the emergency response to the attacks on the World Trade Center. 911 operators did not know what was actually happening. Evacuation orders were confused and misleading. Telephone lines were jammed with callers, and cell towers were down. Signals to firefighter radios failed. Public address and intercom systems inside the World Trade Center went out (CBS News, 2004; Sharp, 2011).
Confusion and lack of situational awareness led to higher casualties, especially among first responders. People in the South Tower were told not to evacuate and to wait for instructions and aid from emergency personnel. Others evacuated up, toward the roof, not knowing that they needed a key to get outside to the roof (CBS News, 2004).
Fire and police personnel were using different radio channels and could not communicate with one another (CBS News, 2004; Sharp, 2011). A repeater system installed in the World Trade Center after the 1993 bombing was not completely functional (Sharp, 2011).
By the time the Boston Marathon bombings occurred on April 15, 2013, emergency managers had learned the importance of communications during disaster events. For the first time, social media played a critical role in communicating information about the bombings and capturing the culprits (Haddow, 2017).
The Boston Police Department was a leader in using social media to communicate with the public. Photos, videos, and information were shared through Twitter, Facebook, and websites. Inaccurate information was quickly corrected. When the Tsarnaev brothers were finally caught, Boston Police Department tweeted a resounding “CAPTURED!!!” (Haddow, p. 185, 2017).
“Information sharing is the basis of effective disaster communications” (Haddow, p. 191, 2017). The public needs to know what is happening and where to get help. TV, radio, and newspapers have been the traditional media used for information. But the use of Facebook, YouTube, and Twitter has changed all that.
“Social media is imperative to emergency management because the public uses these communication tools regularly” (Haddow, p. 171, 2017). Not only can members of the public receive accurate and timely information from reliable sources, but they can help response efforts by submitting videos, photos, digital maps, and other information.
The use of social media allows friends and family to communicate with one another. They can view press conferences by local and national leaders. Information about shelters and registering for aid is readily available. People can contribute donations through websites (Haddow, 2017).
On the downside, social media has been responsible for spreading hysteria and misinformation across the Internet. “Misleading, faulty, or malicious information or pictures” (Haddow, p. 161, 2017) can hamper response and relief efforts. Dishonest people have been known to solicit donations for relief aid that never reached the intended source. When terrorism is involved, calls for retaliation are often posted.
Emergency managers have found that interacting with the public through two-way communication is an effective tool during disaster events. When emergency managers and local leaders commit themselves to providing timely and accurate information to the public, the whole community benefits. Communication specialists are now an important part of every Office of Emergency Management. They work with the local media to get disaster and relief information out quickly and effectively. Understanding what is actually going on helps members of the public to make well-informed decisions about evacuation, relief aid, and recovery (Haddow, 2017).
“The mission of an effective disaster communications strategy is to provide timely and accurate information to the public in all four phases of emergency management” (Haddow, p.162, 2017). Social media can provide information about disaster preparedness and limiting damages resulting from disasters. Local emergency responders can provide warnings of an impending event, information about evacuation routes, and up-to-date details about an ongoing event. After the event, social media and websites can help people register for and receive disaster aid. The FEMA website offers complete information about its mission and what services are available to disaster victims (Haddow, 2017).
Decades of experience have taught emergency managers the value of effective communication. Improved communication technology and social media contribute enormously to that goal.
Dawn Pisturino
Thomas Edison State University
October 10, 2019
Copyright 2019-2021 Dawn Pisturino. All Rights Reserved.
References
911 Memorial. (2018). 9/11 Memorial Timeline. Retrieved from
What is “emergency management?” According to Haddow, Bullock, and Coppola (2017), “the definition of emergency management can be extremely broad and all-encompassing.” It is an evolving discipline whose priorities have changed in response to diverse events, political leadership, and scientific advances.
The nature of the events and the responses of political leaders have been the most influential in shaping emergency management priorities and organizational structure. Since emergency management “deals with risk and risk avoidance” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017), no single event will be handled in precisely the same way. A terrorist attack like 9/11, which was a major criminal event that involved foreigners and foreign countries, will have a much greater impact on the psyche of the American people and affect a broader range of government departments, than a natural event like a hurricane or earthquake.
The U.S. Constitution “gives the states the responsibility for public health and safety – hence the responsibility for public risks – with the federal government in a secondary role. The federal role is to help when the state, local or individual entity is overwhelmed” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017).
What kind of events can hit American communities? Natural events include floods, earthquakes, hurricanes, storm surges, tornadoes, wildfires, land movements such as avalanches and mudslides, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions, severe winter storms, drought, extremes of heat and cold, coastal erosion, thunderstorms, lightning, and hail. Technological events can include building fires, dam failures, hazardous material incidents, nuclear and radiation accidents.
Criminal events include terrorism and the potential use of biological, radiological, and nuclear weapons (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017).
On May 31, 1889, the South Fork dam in Johnstown, PA failed, and “unleashed 20,000,000 tons of water that devastated” the town and killed 2,209 residents (National Park Service,2017). The failure was caused by inadequate construction, maintenance, and repair. This event caught the attention of the entire world, and people banded together to help “the Johnstown sufferers” (National Park Service, 2017).
In 1803, Congress passed legislation authorizing federal funds to help a town in New Hampshire destroyed by fire. This set the precedence for federal involvement in local events. But it was under Franklin D. Roosevelt “that the federal government began to make significant investments in emergency management functions” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017).
The Reconstruction Finance Corporation and the Bureau of Public Roads were authorized “to make disaster loans available for repair and reconstruction of certain public facilities” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017) in the 1930s. The Tennessee Valley Authority – established to produce hydroelectric power – also sought to reduce flooding in the valley (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017).
The Flood Control Act of 1936 authorized the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers “to design and build flood-control projects” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017). Now, “humans could control nature” and promote growth and development in areas previously unavailable (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017).
The 1950s and the Cold War brought a whole new dynamic to the discipline of emergency management. Scientists had succeeded in creating a whole new arsenal of weapons with the capability of destroying the world. The potential for nuclear holocaust was so great, “civil defense programs proliferated across communities” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017). People built bomb shelters to protect themselves, their families, and their communities. A feeling of paranoia gripped the entire nation as U.S. politicians engaged diplomatically with representatives from the Soviet Union.
The Federal Civil Defense Administration (FCDA) was a poorly-funded department “whose main role was to provide technical assistance” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017) in the event of nuclear attack. In reality, however, it was the civil defense directors at the local and state levels who shaped the policies and response to potential disaster.
The 1960s focused attention on natural disasters, and the National Flood Insurance Act of 1968 was passed by Congress. The National Flood Insurance Program was subsequently created, which helped to ease the burden on homeowners located in flood areas and to act proactively before the floods began. This legislation emphasized “the concept of community-based mitigation” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017). When communities joined the NFIP, they committed themselves to passing local ordinances which controlled development in floodplain areas. The federal government produced floodplain maps to support these ordinances.
George Bernstein, who became head of the Federal Insurance Administration under President Richard Nixon, strengthened the program by “linking the mandatory purchase of flood insurance to all homeowner loans that were backed by federal mortgages” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017). This led to the Flood Insurance Act of 1972.
During the 1970s, “more than 100 federal agencies were involved in some aspect of risks and disasters” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017). The fragmentation, conflicts, and confusion that resulted were no different on the state and local levels. When Three Mile Island occurred, these problems became all-too-apparent to the general public. As a result, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) was created by Congress under President Jimmy Carter, with the director reporting directly to the president.
Reorganization Plan Number 3, which created FEMA, sought to establish the following guidelines: FEMA workers “were to anticipate, prepare for, and respond to major civil emergencies” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017); the agency would demand “the most efficient use of all available resources” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017); “emergency responsibilities should be extensions of federal agencies” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017); and “federal hazard mitigation activities should be closely linked with emergency preparedness and response functions” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017).
In the 1980s, civil defense became the priority under President Ronald Reagan. Director Louis Giuffrida reorganized FEMA, moved multiple departments into one building, and placed the agency’s priority “on government preparedness for a nuclear attack” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017). Giuffrida resigned after a financial scandal, which undermined the credibility of the agency. The new director, Julius Becton, worked to restore “integrity to the operations and appropriations of the agency” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017). Under Becton’s leadership, natural hazards like earthquakes, hurricanes, and floods were given a low priority, confirming that the agency “continued the pattern of isolating resources for national security priorities without recognizing the potential of a major natural disaster” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017).
Senator Al Gore, during Senate hearings, questioned FEMA’s priorities and its preparedness in the event of a major earthquake. FEMA was pressured to create an earthquake preparedness plan which “would later become the standard for all of the federal agencies’ response operations” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017).
Under George H.W. Bush, multiple natural disasters occurred – including Hurricane Andrew – which affected people’s perception of FEMA. “People wanted, and expected, their government to be there to help in their time of need” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017). FEMA was perceived as weak and ineffective.
James Witt was appointed Director by President Bill Clinton. Witt had extensive experience in emergency management and reorganized FEMA to support community relations, the efficient use of new technology, and an emphasis on “mitigation and risk avoidance” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017).
The 1990s heralded a new wave of natural disasters. FEMA successfully handled the Midwest floods of 1993 and initiated “the largest voluntary buyout and relocation program to date in an effort to move people out of the floodplain . . .” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017).
Director Witt became a member of Clinton’s cabinet and persuaded state governors “to include their state emergency management directors in their cabinets” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017). This is how important emergency management had become.
The bombing of the World Trade Center in 1993 and the Oklahoma Bombing in 1995 reaffirmed the notion that terrorist events fall into the category of “risks and the consequences of those risks” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017). Emergency management has been an important part of handling similar events.
FEMA’s Project impact: Building Disaster-Resistant Communities heralded “a new community-based approach” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017) that required communities “to identify risks and establish a plan to reduce those risks” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017). The ultimate goal was for the community to “promote sustainable economic development, protect and enhance its natural resources, and ensure a better quality of life for its citizens” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017).
Project Impact was defunded under President George W. Bush. After the unexpected earthquake in Seattle, however, FEMA received a lot of praise from Seattle’s mayor, and the program was restored. Seattle, it turned out, had been “one of the most successful Project impact communities” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017).
The events of 9/11 proved the effectiveness of FEMA when “hundreds of response personnel initiated their operations within just minutes of the onset of events” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017). FEMA was then incorporated into the newly-formed Department of Homeland Security and lost much of its effectiveness and power. The new National Incident Management System (NIMS) fell under the auspices of the Director of Operations Coordination (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017).
The threat of Hurricane Katrina off the Gulf Coast in 2005 prompted President Bush to declare “a disaster in advance of an emergency event for the states in the projected impact zone” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017) and caused DHS/FEMA to shoulder the responsibility. Their response was a failure.
Obama’s appointee, W. Craig Fugate, designated victims of disasters as “survivors” and developed the Whole Community concept which emphasized “preparedness partnerships that had been developed among federal, state, local, private sector, voluntary, and non-profit entities” (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2017). Involving people from all sectors of the community has increased the effectiveness of emergency management response to disasters.
The history and development of emergency management prove how events influence and shape government policies, departmental organization, leadership priorities, and government response to national emergencies. When all citizens get involved, emergency preparedness and response protect communities and mitigate the costs of recovery.
Dawn Pisturino
Thomas Edison State University
August 8, 2019
Copyright 2019-2021 Dawn Pisturino. All Rights Reserved.
Incident Command System and the National Incident Management System
[Twenty] years ago, America changed forever. Protecting our nation from terrorist attacks became the primary objective. The systems and operations developed to prepare, plan, mitigate, respond, and recover from terrorist attacks expanded to include ALL disasters. We now have a national disaster plan which is utilized at the local, tribal, state, and federal levels.
Brief Overview of the Events of 9/11
At 8:46 a.m. on September 11, 2001, American Airlines Flight 11 crashed into the North Tower of the World Trade Center in New York City. Seventeen minutes later, United Airlines Flight 175 smashed into the South Tower. At 9:37 a.m., American Airlines Flight 77 nose-dived into the Pentagon building in Arlington, Virginia. All three airplanes had been hijacked by members of the radical Islamic terrorist organization, Al Qaeda (Haddow, 2017; 911 Memorial, 2018).
“The use of fuel-filled planes caused catastrophic fires in all three buildings impacted, and this led to collapse of both World Trade Center towers and the wing of the Pentagon directly affected” (Haddow, 2017, p. 393). The federal government has spent more than $20 billion on the response and recovery of the World Trade Center attacks alone. On the positive side, the events of 9/11 led to the creation of the Department of Homeland Security and the development and implementation of a more comprehensive and advanced national response to disasters, regardless of size and cause (Haddow, 2017).
The Core Components of the National Incident Management System (NIMS)
“NIMS was created to integrate effective practices in emergency preparedness and response into a comprehensive national framework for incident management” (Haddow, 2017, p.247). Its flexibility allows it to adapt to any kind of disaster, from routine incidents involving local communities to large-scale events, such as hurricanes or earthquakes (DHS, 2008). NIMS provides a template for “coordination and standardization among emergency management/response personnel and their affiliated organizations” (DHS, 2008, p.7).
The National Incident Management System is guided by five core components: preparedness; communications and information management; resource management; command and management; and ongoing management and maintenance. The National Integration Center is responsible for directing NIMS, using the latest technology and operational systems (DHS, 2008).
Preparedness is a multi-task discipline which uses assessment skills; advanced planning; appropriate procedures and protocols; up-to-date training and practice exercises; skilled personnel with the proper licensure and certification; the latest technology and equipment; and the ability to evaluate responses to events and revise protocols and procedures for improved responses to future events (DHS, 2008).
Communications and information management are crucial to emergency responders because all command and coordination stations must share a common goal and operating system in order to work effectively as a team (DHS, 2008).
Resource management demands that “the flow of resources [personnel, equipment, etc.] be fluid and adaptable to the requirements of the incident” (DHS, 2008, p. 8) Without a well-coordinated movement of resources to the disaster site, responders cannot do their job in a timely and efficient manner.
Command and management “enable effective and efficient incident management and coordination by providing a flexible, standardized incident management structure” (DHS, 2008, p. 8) which involves the Incident Command System, Multi-agency Coordination Systems, and public information. Jurisdiction, authority, and multi-agency involvement must be decided and coordinated before and during the disaster event for the response to be successful.
Ongoing management and maintenance by the National Integration Center ensures that the National Incident Management System will always perform at a top-notch level. Failures and successes must be evaluated and addressed and systems refined accordingly (DHS, 2008).
How the Components of NIMS Support and Complete the Incident Command System (ICS)
“NIMS was developed as an outgrowth of ICS that allows for increased interorganizational coordination that is not necessarily addressed under standard ICS structures. The system is designed to be a more comprehensive incident management system than ICS because it goes beyond the field-level incident command and control and addresses all phases of emergency management, as well as all stakeholders (including the NGO and private sectors). It does not, however, replace ICS” (Haddow, 2017, p. 248).
The National Incident Management System provides a template by which the ICS can operate more efficiently. It is an upper management organizational system that oversees the entire operation of a disaster event (Haddow, 2008).
The Incident Command System falls under the command and management component of the National Incident Management System. ICS addresses all hazards, regardless of cause, at the federal, state, tribal, and local levels. NGOs and the private sector are also included (DHS, 2008).
The ICS standardizes the use of common terminology for all agencies involved; inventories and describes resources used; and records incident fatalities (DHS, 2008).
A flexible organizational system adapts the ICS to the needs of a particular event. A small, community-based incident will require less manpower and fewer resources than an event on the scale of Hurricane Katrina (DHS, 2008).
ICS develops a set of objectives by which an event can be measured, studied, and evaluated. This is important for quality improvement. The Incident Commander or Unified Commander creates an Incident Action Plan which “should guide all response activities” (DHS, 2008, p. 47). There should be enough staff and supervisors involved to make the work flow go as planned (DHS, 2008).
The Incident Commander determines and oversees the locations of command facilities. Resources must be carefully managed to control costs and availability. Communication systems must be set up and maintained to provide optimal information sharing and communication (DHS, 2008).
How NIMS and ICS were Utilized in the Events of 9/11
The events of 9/11 resulted in a large number of fatalities among first responders. It became necessary to re-evaluate and re-write appropriate procedures and protocols. At that time, there were no procedures in place to deal with terrorist attacks. The Department of Homeland Security was created, which absorbed FEMA into its structure. The National Incident Management System gradually developed and was finally published in 2008 (Hadddow, 2017).
As soon as the North Tower of the World Trade Center in New York City was attacked on 9/11, New York City emergency dispatchers sent police, paramedics, and firefighters to the site. Battalion Chief Joseph Pfeifer of the New York City Fire Department dispatched additional fire personnel and equipment. The Port Authority Police Department, which was responsible for the security of the World Trade Center, went into action to help with evacuation and rescue (911 Memorial, 2018).
President Bush was notified at 8:50 a.m. At 8:55 a.m., the South Tower was declared secure, and no evacuation attempts were made. Four minutes later, it was decided to evacuate both towers. And, at 9:00 a.m., all civilians were ordered to evacuate the World Trade Center complex. At 9:02 a.m., evacuation efforts were underway, when the South Tower was attacked at 9:03 a.m. President Bush was further informed at 9:05 a.m., and Mayor Rudy Giuliani arrived at the New York City Police Department Command Post (911 Memorial, 2018).
At 9:30 a.m., the Mayor’s Office of Emergency Management evacuated its office at the World Trade Center. Vice-President Dick Cheney was evacuated from the White House (911 Memorial, 2018).
The Pentagon attack occurred at 9:37 a.m. Emergency personnel immediately responded. At 9:45 a.m., the White House and the U.S. Capitol Building were evacuated (911 Memorial, 2018).
The South Tower of the World Trade Center collapsed at 9:59 a.m. At 10:15 a.m., the Pentagon E-ring collapsed. The North Tower of the World Trade Center collapsed at 10:28 a.m., and the evacuation of lower Manhattan began at 11:02 a.m. At 5:20 p.m., the entire World Trade Center collapsed. All efforts after that were dedicated to putting out the fires, securing the crime site, finding and rescuing survivors, recovering the dead, identifying victims, and removing and cleaning up debris and body parts (Haddow, 2017; 911 Memorial, 2018).
In 2002, two after-action reports were released: Improving NYPD Emergency Preparednessand Response and Arlington County After-Action Report on the Response to the 9/11 Terrorist Attack on the Pentagon. These reports helped to shape improvements in the emergency management discipline (Haddow, 2017).
The NYPD report identified twenty areas of improvement, with six warranting immediate action: “clearer delineation of roles and responsibilities of organizational leaders; better clarity in the chain of command; radio communications protocols and procedures that optimize information flow; more effective mobilization of response staff; more efficient provisioning and distribution of emergency and donated equipment; a comprehensive disaster response plan with a significant counterterrorism component” (Haddow, 2017).
It is easy to see here how the implementation of the National Incident Management System would have improved the response to the 9/11 World Trade Center attacks. The Command and Management Component would have helped to define the authority of the Incident Commander and to clarify the chain of command. The Communications and Information Management Component would have centralized communications and information sharing to present a clear picture of what was happening and what was needed. The Resource Management Component would have coordinated the flow of personnel and equipment to the site to more efficiently deal with the disaster. The Ongoing Management and Maintenance Component would have ensured that a comprehensive plan was in place to manage a major terrorist attack. The Preparedness Component would have ensured that New York City was ready to bring all agencies together to work as an expert team in responding to a major disaster (DHS, 2008).
The response to the Pentagon attack was deemed a success due to its quick, coordinated, well-prepared response based on the Incident Command System. Arlington County already had a Comprehensive Emergency Management Plan in place. The Arlington County Fire Department had already considered the possibility of a weapons of mass destruction scenario and was well-prepared to respond (Haddow, 2017).
Conclusion
It is unfortunate that disasters have to occur in order to improve emergency management as a discipline and emergency response as a necessity of life. But complacency is not an option. Preparation is the key to effective response and recovery when disasters do occur. The Incident Command System, guided by the core components of the National Incident Management System, is an effective tool for coordinating and managing preparation, planning, mitigation, response, and recovery of major disasters on the local, tribal, state, and federal levels.
Dawn Pisturino
Thomas Edison State University
September 18, 2019
Copyright 2019-2021 Dawn Pisturino. All Rights Reserved.
References
911 Memorial. (2018 ). 9/11 Memorial Timeline. Retrieved from
Around 6:30 a.m. on November 8, 2018, the deadliest fire in California history broke out near Pulga, Butte County, California after a Pacific Gas & Electric high tension power line fell to the ground. Strong winds spread the fire to Concow, Paradise, Magalia, Chico, and Centerville.
Thousands of people, pets, and livestock were forced to evacuate. Towns not touched by the fire were overwhelmed with evacuees. Community organizers set up shelters and tent cities. Representatives from insurance companies and FEMA erected stations to help people affected by the fire.
By the time the fire was extinguished three weeks later, 153,336 acres and over 18,800 structures had been destroyed. At least 86 people perished.
Pacific Gas & Electric took responsibility for the fire and immediately began the cleanup process. But the costs of the damage forced PG&E to file for bankruptcy and cleanup efforts were delayed.
The cleanup has been estimated to take two or three years. Over 1,500 people were hired to remove debris. They must be certified in Hazmat cleanup due to concerns about asbestos. PG&E moved forward with its tree removal program to help prevent future wildfires.
A major hazard after the fire was the contamination of the water supplies. Benzene, a known carcinogenic, was released into the water when water pipes melted. People were forced to drink bottled water or install huge water tanks and have water delivered by truck. This hit surviving businesses particularly hard.
Many people who lost their homes and jobs moved away to start fresh someplace else. Six months after the fire, only 1,500 residents had returned to Paradise out of a population of 27,000. Businesses supplying basic goods re-opened with limited hours. Internet, telephone, and electricity services were restored.
More than 1,000 animals were rescued and taken to shelters, an overwhelming number. Six months later, all but 200 had been placed with new or recovered families.
On August 6, 2019, the Butte County Public Health Department issued a press release indicating that many locations in the Camp Fire burn area remain under the do-not-drink water advisory. Water quality is monitored by the California State Water Resources Control Board.
Agencies which have cooperated with response and recovery include: the California Department of Fire, California Department of Transportation, California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation, California Highway Patrol, California Office of Emergency Services, National Weather Service, California Conservation Corps, Butte County, and the City of Chico, California.
Dawn Pisturino
September 10, 2019
Copyright 2019-2020 Dawn Pisturino. All Rights Reserved.
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