Both the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001 in New York City and Hurricane Katrina on August 29, 2005 were major disasters. One was a manmade disaster and the other a natural disaster. In New York City, the damage was contained in Manhattan. But in New Orleans, the damage was widespread and uncontrolled.
On the night of September 11, 2001, Mayor Rudy Giuliani held a press conference to inform citizens of New York City and the entire nation of what happened, the response to the event, and future recovery. He talked about his own experiences during the event and how he and the people with him survived.
Mayor Giuliani presented himself as calm, rational, and confident. He maintained his composure and self-control. He made it clear to the public that everything was under control. He reassured them that everything was okay, and they were safe.
His message was positive and hopeful. He honored the victims and praised the people who had evacuated in a peaceful and civilized manner and helped each other along the way. He emphasized how proud he was of the people and first responders of New York City.
Giuliani became emotional when talking about the first responders and fire and police personnel who died. He asked everyone to pray for the victims and to be grateful that they were alive.
Towards the end of the news conference, he stressed that members of the Muslim community would be protected. He condemned all acts of vigilante violence and retaliation. He asked people who worked in Manhattan to stay home from work.
The mayor projected a feeling of hope, security, and confidence that the U.S. government would deal with the perpetrators and New York City would rebuild and be stronger than before.
Three days after Hurricane Katrina made landfall in New Orleans, Mayor Ray Nagin made an impassioned plea on WWL Radio for help. He described the horrific conditions in New Orleans and the lack of response by FEMA and the federal government. His anger and frustration were real. He was clearly traumatized by events.
When I was listening to him, I kept thinking that here is a man who feels powerless. There was apparently no clear chain of command or designated people in authority. Mayor Nagin was there, on the ground, asking for the authority to do something from people who seemed indifferent to the situation. He reminded everyone that FEMA knew about the problems with the pumping stations and did nothing. He wanted to know when the help promised by the federal government was coming. He deplored the fact that valuable resources were being wasted on looters and lawlessness instead of rescuing and helping victims.
At the end of the broadcast, he called on the public to be active in contacting authorities and demanding help for New Orleans. He contrasted the immediate response and aftermath of 9/11 to the lack of response to New Orleans. He was outraged.
Mayor Nagin had every right to be outraged by the slow response to Hurricane Katrina. And maybe his angry message was what it took to get things done.
Authentic History. (Presenter). (2011, January 11). 9/11 news coverage: 10:00 pm: Mayor rudy
giuliani press conference [Video file]. Retrieved from
At 8:46 a.m. on September 11, 2001, American Airlines Flight 11 crashed into the North Tower of the World Trade Center in New York City (911 Memorial, 2018).
John Murphy, CEO of Oppenheimer Funds, was jogging in Battery Park when he saw the smoke. He assumed that an airplane had inadvertently crashed into the World Trade Center (Argenti, 2002).
Mary Beth Bardin, executive vice-president of public affairs and communications at Verizon, was stuck in traffic when she noticed the smoke. She assumed that a building was on fire in downtown Manhattan. When the cab driver turned on the news, she learned that an airplane had crashed into the World Trade Center (Argenti, 2002).
Verizon suffered major communications damage. “The attack knocked out 300,000 voice access lines and 4.5 million data circuits and left ten cellular towers inactive, depriving 14,000 businesses and 20,000 residential customers of service” (Argenti, para. 9, 2002).
Communication breakdowns abounded during the emergency response to the attacks on the World Trade Center. 911 operators had no clue of what was actually happening. Orders to evacuate were misunderstood or not received. Telephone lines were jammed with callers. Signals to firefighter radios failed. Public address and intercom systems inside the World Trade Center went out (CBS News, 2004; Sharp, 2011).
Confusion and lack of situational awareness led to higher casualties. People in the South Tower were told not to evacuate and to wait for instructions and help from emergency personnel. Others evacuated up, toward the roof, not knowing that they needed a key to get onto the roof (CBS News, 2004).
A “long-standing rivalry between the NYPD and FDNY” (CBS News, para. 23, 2004) led to disputes over command authority. Fire and police personnel were using different radio channels and could not communicate with one another (CBS News, 2004; Sharp, 2011). A repeater system installed in the World Trade Center after the 1993 bombing was not completely functional (Sharp, 2011). All of these issues were addressed in the 9/11 Commission Report.
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People in New YorkCity Knew Something was Happening, but They Didn’t Know What!
A lot of Changes have Happened Since 9/11:
Post-9/11, the Department of Homeland Security was created, and a National Incident Management System was established to designate clear lines of authority during disaster events.
The role of Communications has evolved.
Better technologies have been developed.
The rise of Facebook, Twitter, Google, and other social media networks has allowed two-way communication with the public.
Emergency managers now hire trained communication specialists to communicate accurate, timely information to the media, community and national leaders, and the public.(Haddow, 2017).
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Whyare these Changes Important?
New York City now has a state-of-the-art fire department operations center. During a disaster, the FDOC contacts other agencies for help. Personnel report to FDOC senior staff. The department’s incident management teams can be activated. FDOC can access NYPD videos, the Department of Transportation digital photographs, and live videos from media helicopters and ground vehicles. FDOC can monitor, record, and replay radio transmissions from Fire, EMS, NYPD, OEM, and others. FDOC can act as a command center. (Sharp, 2011)
FDNY now uses multi-frequency radio systems to communicate with each other and NYPD (Sharp, 2011).
Training in National Incident Management System processes is now mandatory to ensure that agencies are working together, using the same language, and sharing information with each other (Sharp, 2011).
The changes made in New York City have been duplicated in communities all across the country.
Community first responders now have social media sites on Facebook, Twitter, and other social networks to educate the public about disaster preparedness; relay accurate, timely information to the public during a disaster event; and help members of the community to register for disaster aid and find relief shelters (Haddow, 2017).
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Use the Internet for Disaster Information:
In 2001, YouTube, Google News, Facebook, and Twitter did not exist (Praetorius, 2012).
Today, the Internet allows free access to all kinds of information:
Social networks like Facebook
Blogs like Blogger and WordPress
Microblogs like Twitter
Crowdsourcing and Forums like LiveJournal
Digital Mapping like Google Maps
Websites
Podcasts and TV and Radio broadcasts
Video Sharing like YouTube
Photo Sharing like Instagram
Wiki sites like Wikipedia (Haddow, 2017).
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Participate with Social Media:
“Social media is imperative to emergency management because the public uses these communication tools regularly” (Haddow, p. 171, 2017).
Submitting videos, photos, digital maps, and information
Receiving information about casualties, injuries, and damage
Communicating with friends, family, and co-workers
Raising money for disaster relief
Learning about preparedness and evacuation routes
Receiving guidance, information, and moral support
Learning how to find relief shelters and registering for aid
Access to FEMA information
Access to press conferences and local news(Haddow, 2017).
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Summing it all Up:
“The mission of an effective disaster communication strategy is to provide timely and accurate information to the public in all four phases of emergency management” (Haddow, p. 162, 2017).
“Information sharing is the basis of effective disaster communications” (Haddow, p. 191, 2017).
(This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC By-NC-ND)
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Honor the Heroes!
(This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC By-NC-ND)
Incident Command System and the National Incident Management System
[Twenty] years ago, America changed forever. Protecting our nation from terrorist attacks became the primary objective. The systems and operations developed to prepare, plan, mitigate, respond, and recover from terrorist attacks expanded to include ALL disasters. We now have a national disaster plan which is utilized at the local, tribal, state, and federal levels.
Brief Overview of the Events of 9/11
At 8:46 a.m. on September 11, 2001, American Airlines Flight 11 crashed into the North Tower of the World Trade Center in New York City. Seventeen minutes later, United Airlines Flight 175 smashed into the South Tower. At 9:37 a.m., American Airlines Flight 77 nose-dived into the Pentagon building in Arlington, Virginia. All three airplanes had been hijacked by members of the radical Islamic terrorist organization, Al Qaeda (Haddow, 2017; 911 Memorial, 2018).
“The use of fuel-filled planes caused catastrophic fires in all three buildings impacted, and this led to collapse of both World Trade Center towers and the wing of the Pentagon directly affected” (Haddow, 2017, p. 393). The federal government has spent more than $20 billion on the response and recovery of the World Trade Center attacks alone. On the positive side, the events of 9/11 led to the creation of the Department of Homeland Security and the development and implementation of a more comprehensive and advanced national response to disasters, regardless of size and cause (Haddow, 2017).
The Core Components of the National Incident Management System (NIMS)
“NIMS was created to integrate effective practices in emergency preparedness and response into a comprehensive national framework for incident management” (Haddow, 2017, p.247). Its flexibility allows it to adapt to any kind of disaster, from routine incidents involving local communities to large-scale events, such as hurricanes or earthquakes (DHS, 2008). NIMS provides a template for “coordination and standardization among emergency management/response personnel and their affiliated organizations” (DHS, 2008, p.7).
The National Incident Management System is guided by five core components: preparedness; communications and information management; resource management; command and management; and ongoing management and maintenance. The National Integration Center is responsible for directing NIMS, using the latest technology and operational systems (DHS, 2008).
Preparedness is a multi-task discipline which uses assessment skills; advanced planning; appropriate procedures and protocols; up-to-date training and practice exercises; skilled personnel with the proper licensure and certification; the latest technology and equipment; and the ability to evaluate responses to events and revise protocols and procedures for improved responses to future events (DHS, 2008).
Communications and information management are crucial to emergency responders because all command and coordination stations must share a common goal and operating system in order to work effectively as a team (DHS, 2008).
Resource management demands that “the flow of resources [personnel, equipment, etc.] be fluid and adaptable to the requirements of the incident” (DHS, 2008, p. 8) Without a well-coordinated movement of resources to the disaster site, responders cannot do their job in a timely and efficient manner.
Command and management “enable effective and efficient incident management and coordination by providing a flexible, standardized incident management structure” (DHS, 2008, p. 8) which involves the Incident Command System, Multi-agency Coordination Systems, and public information. Jurisdiction, authority, and multi-agency involvement must be decided and coordinated before and during the disaster event for the response to be successful.
Ongoing management and maintenance by the National Integration Center ensures that the National Incident Management System will always perform at a top-notch level. Failures and successes must be evaluated and addressed and systems refined accordingly (DHS, 2008).
How the Components of NIMS Support and Complete the Incident Command System (ICS)
“NIMS was developed as an outgrowth of ICS that allows for increased interorganizational coordination that is not necessarily addressed under standard ICS structures. The system is designed to be a more comprehensive incident management system than ICS because it goes beyond the field-level incident command and control and addresses all phases of emergency management, as well as all stakeholders (including the NGO and private sectors). It does not, however, replace ICS” (Haddow, 2017, p. 248).
The National Incident Management System provides a template by which the ICS can operate more efficiently. It is an upper management organizational system that oversees the entire operation of a disaster event (Haddow, 2008).
The Incident Command System falls under the command and management component of the National Incident Management System. ICS addresses all hazards, regardless of cause, at the federal, state, tribal, and local levels. NGOs and the private sector are also included (DHS, 2008).
The ICS standardizes the use of common terminology for all agencies involved; inventories and describes resources used; and records incident fatalities (DHS, 2008).
A flexible organizational system adapts the ICS to the needs of a particular event. A small, community-based incident will require less manpower and fewer resources than an event on the scale of Hurricane Katrina (DHS, 2008).
ICS develops a set of objectives by which an event can be measured, studied, and evaluated. This is important for quality improvement. The Incident Commander or Unified Commander creates an Incident Action Plan which “should guide all response activities” (DHS, 2008, p. 47). There should be enough staff and supervisors involved to make the work flow go as planned (DHS, 2008).
The Incident Commander determines and oversees the locations of command facilities. Resources must be carefully managed to control costs and availability. Communication systems must be set up and maintained to provide optimal information sharing and communication (DHS, 2008).
How NIMS and ICS were Utilized in the Events of 9/11
The events of 9/11 resulted in a large number of fatalities among first responders. It became necessary to re-evaluate and re-write appropriate procedures and protocols. At that time, there were no procedures in place to deal with terrorist attacks. The Department of Homeland Security was created, which absorbed FEMA into its structure. The National Incident Management System gradually developed and was finally published in 2008 (Hadddow, 2017).
As soon as the North Tower of the World Trade Center in New York City was attacked on 9/11, New York City emergency dispatchers sent police, paramedics, and firefighters to the site. Battalion Chief Joseph Pfeifer of the New York City Fire Department dispatched additional fire personnel and equipment. The Port Authority Police Department, which was responsible for the security of the World Trade Center, went into action to help with evacuation and rescue (911 Memorial, 2018).
President Bush was notified at 8:50 a.m. At 8:55 a.m., the South Tower was declared secure, and no evacuation attempts were made. Four minutes later, it was decided to evacuate both towers. And, at 9:00 a.m., all civilians were ordered to evacuate the World Trade Center complex. At 9:02 a.m., evacuation efforts were underway, when the South Tower was attacked at 9:03 a.m. President Bush was further informed at 9:05 a.m., and Mayor Rudy Giuliani arrived at the New York City Police Department Command Post (911 Memorial, 2018).
At 9:30 a.m., the Mayor’s Office of Emergency Management evacuated its office at the World Trade Center. Vice-President Dick Cheney was evacuated from the White House (911 Memorial, 2018).
The Pentagon attack occurred at 9:37 a.m. Emergency personnel immediately responded. At 9:45 a.m., the White House and the U.S. Capitol Building were evacuated (911 Memorial, 2018).
The South Tower of the World Trade Center collapsed at 9:59 a.m. At 10:15 a.m., the Pentagon E-ring collapsed. The North Tower of the World Trade Center collapsed at 10:28 a.m., and the evacuation of lower Manhattan began at 11:02 a.m. At 5:20 p.m., the entire World Trade Center collapsed. All efforts after that were dedicated to putting out the fires, securing the crime site, finding and rescuing survivors, recovering the dead, identifying victims, and removing and cleaning up debris and body parts (Haddow, 2017; 911 Memorial, 2018).
In 2002, two after-action reports were released: Improving NYPD Emergency Preparednessand Response and Arlington County After-Action Report on the Response to the 9/11 Terrorist Attack on the Pentagon. These reports helped to shape improvements in the emergency management discipline (Haddow, 2017).
The NYPD report identified twenty areas of improvement, with six warranting immediate action: “clearer delineation of roles and responsibilities of organizational leaders; better clarity in the chain of command; radio communications protocols and procedures that optimize information flow; more effective mobilization of response staff; more efficient provisioning and distribution of emergency and donated equipment; a comprehensive disaster response plan with a significant counterterrorism component” (Haddow, 2017).
It is easy to see here how the implementation of the National Incident Management System would have improved the response to the 9/11 World Trade Center attacks. The Command and Management Component would have helped to define the authority of the Incident Commander and to clarify the chain of command. The Communications and Information Management Component would have centralized communications and information sharing to present a clear picture of what was happening and what was needed. The Resource Management Component would have coordinated the flow of personnel and equipment to the site to more efficiently deal with the disaster. The Ongoing Management and Maintenance Component would have ensured that a comprehensive plan was in place to manage a major terrorist attack. The Preparedness Component would have ensured that New York City was ready to bring all agencies together to work as an expert team in responding to a major disaster (DHS, 2008).
The response to the Pentagon attack was deemed a success due to its quick, coordinated, well-prepared response based on the Incident Command System. Arlington County already had a Comprehensive Emergency Management Plan in place. The Arlington County Fire Department had already considered the possibility of a weapons of mass destruction scenario and was well-prepared to respond (Haddow, 2017).
Conclusion
It is unfortunate that disasters have to occur in order to improve emergency management as a discipline and emergency response as a necessity of life. But complacency is not an option. Preparation is the key to effective response and recovery when disasters do occur. The Incident Command System, guided by the core components of the National Incident Management System, is an effective tool for coordinating and managing preparation, planning, mitigation, response, and recovery of major disasters on the local, tribal, state, and federal levels.
Dawn Pisturino
Thomas Edison State University
September 18, 2019
Copyright 2019-2021 Dawn Pisturino. All Rights Reserved.
References
911 Memorial. (2018 ). 9/11 Memorial Timeline. Retrieved from
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